
aass__Lu/l3_£<2>5* 



Book 



-_ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/americanschoolbu01mill 



American School Building 
Standards 



WILBUR T. MILLS, Architect 
A. A. I. A. 




FRANKLIN EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHING COMPANY 

COLUMBUS, OHIO 

1910 



The Champlin Press, Columbus, Ohio 






Copyright 1910, by 
WILBUR T. MILLS 



©CU278828 



PREFACE. 

The present work is offered to the public in the 
belief that there is still great need for the dissemina- 
tion of reliable information regarding correct design 
and construction in public school buildings in this 
country, and that "every little helps." 

The author makes no claim of originality for 
most of the matter contained in the work, unless it be 
as regards arrangement and selection. He has 
drawn freely upon all the well known modern works 
upon the subjects treated, modifying conclusions as 
experience and the most recent authorities approve. 
The controlling motive has been to so condense and 
standardize the best present day practice as to pro- 
duce a compact handbook for ready reference, elimi- 
nating both the historical and purely aesthetic 
phases of the subject, for the sake of utility. 

The author acknowledges help received from, and 
opinions influenced by, publications of The Boston 
Schoolhouse Commission, Mr. Edmund M. Wheel- 
right, Prof. A. D. F. Hamlin of Columbia University, 
Mr. Warren R. Briggs, Mr. M. C. Huyett, Prof. Rolla 
C. Carpenter of Cornell University, Prof. S. H. Wood- 
bridge of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
Mr. R. Clipston Sturgis, Mr. W. B. Ittner and others. 



TO MY BROTHER 

Edwin Stanton Mills: 

This book is affectionately dedi- 
cated by 

—THE AUTHOR. 



THE MAN WHO KNOWS. 

From the American School Board Journal, April, 
1908, revised. 

There was a time, — and not many years ago, — 
when the majority of our American cities and towns 
saw very little expert skill employed in the design- 
ing of buildings for school purposes. Indeed, even 
now, one often meets people who unblushingly pro- 
claim that "most any one" can design a school 
building, since it is "nothing but a collection of plain 
rectangular rooms, a few entrances, exits, stairs, 
etc." Worst of all, these people actually seem to 
believe what they say, incredible as that may seem. 
Unfortunately the existence of such sentiments, in 
altogether too many otherwise enlightened com- 
munities, renders still possible the erection of so 
called school buildings which, to those WHO KNOW, 
plainly and loudly proclaim hideous defiance of all 
laws of art, hygiene, ventilation and in some cases of 
even common sense. 

The adage "If ignorance is bliss, 'tis folly to be 
wise" can not excuse or palliate such conditions, for 
it is a case in which the lives and health of your 
children, and your neighbor's children, are at stake, 
and it is your duty to know. No one can tell how 
many cases of ruined eyesight, tuberculosis (con- 
sumption), chronic female disorders, nervous col- 
lapse — yes even dangerous epidemics, owe their be- 
ginning or continuation to such miserable excuses 
of school buildings as are above described. Cases 
have been known in which contagious diseases have 



been carried from one season to another in un- 
sanitary rooms. The entire country was horrified at 
the frightful catastrophe at Collinwood in which 
more than 160 children and one teacher lost their 
lives by fire. Yet making proper allowance for the 
effect of panic, and other extenuating circumstances, 
it appears to be established, beyond the possibility 
of a doubt, that no such calamity could have oc- 
curred in a building properly designed and con- 
structed. Moreover it is undoubtedly true that the 
absence of many more such catastrophes can be 
credited to no cause but the absence of some initial 
accident necessary to set the trouble in motion. Have 
you such a building in your town ? Be sure about it, 
and, if so, do all you can to see that it is replaced 
with one of the right sort. The lives of your own 
children may be the price to pay for neglect of this 
all important duty. 

The public school concerns intimately more 
people than any other class of public edifices, (1) be- 
cause every citizen avails himself of its privileges in 
his youth, and sends his children to the same school 
in later years; and (2) its design unquestionably 
affects, for better or worse, the health, happiness and 
morals of the pupils, to say nothing of the educa- 
tional work carried on therein. 

While much has been done, especially in our lar- 
ger cities, toward standardizing and formulating 
data of school design, this should only serve the 
purpose of imposing u^>on every school board and all 
architects of school buildings, the duty of mastering 
such details which are now readily procurable ; a 
duty which, as Professor Hamlin says, "is all the 
more imperative when one reflects how large a span 



of the life of a community is spent within the walls of 
its schools, and how important it is to surround its 
children with the most perfect environment for their 
hours of study. The school houses of any com- 
munity are gauges of its enlightenment. They 
should be the best and most carefully constructed 
buildings it possesses, not the most splendid and 
ornate, but the most perfect in design and complete 
and thorough in execution and equipment." 

In this day of enlightenment, everybody should 
know that an educational theory which does not put 
the utmost stress upon the correct relation of mind 
and body, with its hygienic and ethical meaning, 
would be simply ridiculous. No matter how small 
or inexpensive your building must be, — if it is to 
contain only one school room,— you are grossly 
negligent unless you make every provision known to 
the architect's and builder's art to provide for the 
comfort, safety and health of the precious children 
who will be forced to use it, and unless you do your 
part by influencing your board, for the very first 
step, to secure THE MAN WHO KNOWS to direct, 
and instruct them and thus avoid the countless errors 
and omissions which are certain to come if any one 
less skilled or experienced undertakes the work. Do 
not allow a feeling of false loyalty to prejudice you 
in favor of a local architect simply because he is a 
"home man" unless you are absolutely certain that 
he is THE MAN WHO KNOWS. Such misplaced 
sympathy is responsible for many hideous and dan- 
gerous buildings. 

Simple fairness prompts the supposition that 
many boards really desire to exercise these^ pre- 
cautions and to secure buildings correctly designed 



and built, but owing to the inexperience of the in- 
dividual board members, — usually men elected to 
serve for short terms only, and engaged in business, 
the professions or other callings not in any way re- 
lated to the designing or construction of buildings, — 
they do not know and can not easily or quickly learn 
how this result may best be accomplished, or where 
THE MAN WHO KNOWS is to be found. These 
facts alone are sufficient justification for the follow- 
ing statement relating to architects and their work. 
Architects are men who design and supervise the 
construction of buildings for the occupation of 
human and other beings, in which buildings the ele- 
ments of beauty and pleasure are of importance. In 
early days the architect's work required only a mas- 
tery of building construction, supplemented with 
knowledge of how to beautify and emphasize that 
construction. But the designing of buildings to meet 
modern conditions requires the architect to be 
thoroughly versed, if not expert, in architecture, art, 
structural engineering, steel and iron work, rein- 
forced concrete and other fireproof construction, 
heating and ventilating, sanitary engineering, 
electricity, and other important subjects of such 
variety and magnitude that one might easily imagine 
the men who presume to undertake such formidable 
tasks are like fools rushing in where angels fear to 
tread. Indeed it would require more than the life- 
time of an ordinary man, unassisted, to master each 
one of the subjects involved in the designing of 
buildings — if it were possible to accomplish such 
a stupendous task in any length of time — but such a 
result is perhaps not within the bounds of human 
possibilities. 

10 



Clearly it is impossible for any one man to com- 
bine very great skill in several of these subjects at 
the same time, and therefore we find that most 
architects, when called upon to handle branches of 
work in which their experience or training is limited, 
have no hesitation in retaining experts in those lines 
to execute that part of the work. On the other hand 
many of the ablest architects deliberately train 
themselves as specialists in buildings requiring pro- 
ficiency in a limited and definite line of work. It is 
surely easy to understand how men of such special 
training are able, with notable ease and proficiency, 
to handle the work toward which all their training 
has been inclined, and also to appreciate how much 
more the perfection and success of a building en- 
terprise is assured when all its details are kept at 
all times within the grasp of one competent in- 
dividual. It is by men of such specialized training 
that your school buildings should be designed. 

Architects are professional men and have no 
organization comparable with Unions or Orders 
having oaths of allegiance or requiring unwilling 
obedience. In this country the largest and most 
authoritative organization of architects is the Ameri- 
can Institute of Architects, a voluntary association 
comprising many but not all of the best architects 
in America. Many good architects are not members 
of the institute and suffer no embarrassment thereby. 
This institute sets up certain high professional 
standards evolved from the experience and judg- 
ment of the best men in the profession, and toward 
these standards its members are urged— not com- 
pelled—to aspire. Its work is thus wholly unselfish, 

11 



aimed only at the uplifting and enlightenment of its 
members, and the advancement of the profession of 
architecture. 

The institute, however, recommends a code of 
ethics, and a minimum schedule of fees, below which 
the experience of thousands demonstrates that its 
members can not afford to work. The code of ethics 
and schedule of fees of the institute may be found on 
page 215 to 219. To this code and schedule no 
member is compelled to adhere, but all come to it 
sooner or later, and many exceed it. Honest and 
sufficient compensation — indeed an adequate living 
can not be assured otherwise. 

A member who sets at defiance the standards and 
recommendations of the institute may be expelled 
therefrom, but the institute has no power, such as 
legal or medical societies possess in some states, to 
prevent members thus deposed from continuing in 
practice. Nevertheless, while architects outside of 
the institute may practice the profession and charge 
such fees as they see fit, — being accountable only to 
themselves, — the standards of the institute have 
become the standards by which all American archi- 
tects are measured, both by the profession itself and 
by the general public, thus demonstrating the just- 
ness and righteousness of those standards more 
effectually than the use of any force or coercion 
could ever do. So generally is this true that all so 
called architects who practice under other standards 
or for lower fees may well be regarded with caution 
and in most cases with suspicion and distrust. 

As a rule all architects who work for less than 
the institute schedule of fees may be grouped under 
three classes — (1) Young or inexperienced men anx- 

12 



ions for a start and willing to sacrifice the fee for 
the experience. (2) Those men who fall 
under the head of "has beens" and are therefore in 
need. (3) Dishonest men who intend to seek the 
balance of the full fee by indirect and crooked 
methods. Whatever the class, be assured that "Jan- 
uary sales prices" are just as risky and deceptive ra 
the building world as in mercantile business, and 
almost certain calamity is involved in considering 
cheap architects. Any school building which is at all 
worthy of a competent architect's attention merits 
the service of the best man your board can induce 
to undertake the work. Even were the financial 
difference necessary to secure the best man an item 
of considerable size, it is nothing compared to the 
risks otherwise involved. Inexperience will cer- 
tainly display itself in every important feature of 
your building besides annoying you constantly by its 
bungling and inefficient management of the work 
itself; while cut prices, rebates and graft schemes 
of every sort simply put a premium on dishonest and 
cheap work, which will be foisted upon you at un- 
expected times and in devious ways you can not dis- 
cover until too late. No power on earth can force an 
incompetent practitioner to do high grade work, or 
a dishonest one to do honest work. No matter how- 
many "smart" or "practical" men may sit upon 
your board, the rogue will always beat you. 

In all activities of life the specialist becomes the 
most expert. The marvelous developments in the 
trades, arts and sciences in these recent years would 
have been absolutely impossible except for the ex- 
istence of the specialist — "men of one idea" whose 
time, thought and money were concentrated on the 

13 



accomplishment of a single purpose. And there is 
no class of building more worthy of the best efforts 
of the educated specialist than our public schocl 
buildings. The wonderful improvement made in 
school work by some of our cities in the last few 
years shows what may be done when the highest 
skill of the specially trained architect is brought to 
bear upon this problem. "What has been done in 
some cities may be done in all. "What may be done 
in the cities is also possible in the towns, and what 
is possible in the towns may even be done in the 
country. Every board member, every teacher, every 
citizen should make it a part of his business — as it 
is certainly a part of his duty — to help forward the 
cause of better school buildings by securing THE 
MAN WHO KNOWS. 



14 



SELECTING AN ARCHITECT. 

"When an individual or a body of individuals pro- 
poses to undertake the erection of a building of any 
magnitude, the very first questions to be confronted 
are (1) The advisability of employing an architect 
and (2) the wisest method of selecting the one best 
qualified for the work in hand. "With regard to (1) 
nothing will be said, as any one who attempts a 
building in this day of the world without the guid- 
ance of a competent architect deserves the trouble 
he is sure to encounter. But with reference to the 
method of selection many people need guidance and 
help. 

It is an old saying that there's two sides to every 
question, and this one is no exception. Many archi- 
tects and laymen claim that the only right way to 
choose an architect is by individual selection, — upon 
the basis of integrity, professional skill and ex- 
perience, just as men in other professions are se- 
lected, and where no sufficient reasons exist for do- 
ing otherwise, this is by far the simplest and easiest 
method. Supporters of this view offer the follow- 
ing arguments in its favor. 

(1) Any other method involves competition 
among several architects, the waste of much 
time, often much needless expense, — both to 
owners and competitors, much annoyance and 
sometimes hard feelings. 



15 



(2) In all competitions the gambling instinct 
is appealed to, and the prospect of winning 
the prize tempts architects to submit the sort 
of work MOST LIKELY TO WIN, regardless 
of real architectural merit; and unless the 
owner retains professional advisers to guide 
him, he, being incompetent to judge, is al- 
most certain to select unwisely. 

(3) Even if, by accident, the owner selects a 
competitive DESIGN of real merit, he runs 
the risk of thus choosing a MAN brilliant in 
design but inexperienced or unsafe in con- 
structive ability, or perhaps even utterly ir- 
responsible. 

(4) Under the very best conditions of com- 
petition it is exceedingly difficult to select 
an architect with absolute fairness to each 
competitor, and it is practically impossible 
when the owner trusts his own untrained 
judgment to make the selection. 

However, in spite of these seemingly conclusive 
arguments against competitions, it remains a fact 
that, aside from priA^ate work done for individuals, 
the great majority of important architectural con- 
tracts are, have always been, and perhaps always 
will be awarded by competition of one sort or an- 
other. And the following are some of the reasons 
offered in explanation of this state of affairs. 

1 — Architects themselves are not of one mind 
in opposing competitions. The American In- 
stitute of Architects solemnly pronounces 
against competitions and yet, recognizing 
their prevalence and growth, spends years 



16 



trying to formulate a satisfactory code for 
their regulation. Meantime, some of its most 
prominent officers and members engage in 
competitions, — and, indeed, some of them 
would hardly be known, or able to continue 
in architecture without such practice. 

2 — The people practically demand competi- 
tion in public work, and look with suspicion 
and distrust upon all contracts not so award- 
ed. Nothing offers the yellow journal a more 
welcome subject for sensation and cries of 
" Graft" than an award without giving at 
least several good men a chance. As a result, 
there are but few monumental public, or even 
semi-public buildings in this country, the 
architects of which were not selected by com- 
petition of some sort, while the list of those 
important building designs selected in com- 
petitions, and of those architects who have be- 
come famous thereby would be a long and 
representative one. 

3 — Many individuals and bodies of men 
claim to see great advantage in competitions 
arising from the number of different designs 
or schemes presented to choose from, these 
being the work of trained minds all directed 
to the solution of a given problem; and some 
— but not all by any means — are willing to 
pay all competitors in order to secure this 
real or fancied advantage. 

4 — In many cases, competitions are unavoid- 
able, such as the requirement of competitions 
by law, or by condition of bequests, or by 

17 



reason of inability to choose otherwise from 
among equals in ability or favoritism. And, 
as above stated, they are almost unavoidable 
in public work. 

Resume. 

To express in a word the best thought and ad- 
vice upon the subject: Be good, and if you can't be 
good, be as good as you can. Always be sure your 
architect is ' ' The man who knows. ' ' If such a man, 
having the requisite integrity, ability and experience 
is available, have nothing to do with competitions. 
But if no such man is readily available, or if any 
reasons exist, such as above suggested, why the com- 
petition is wise, necessary or unavoidable, then ar- 
range your competition and its requirements with 
the utmost care, being particularly watchful to have 
its terms wise, honest and fair to all concerned, — or 
better yet, turn the whole matter over to professional 
advisers who KNOW HOW to guide you safely and 
wisely. 

Data on Competitions. 

The American Institute of Architects recognizes 
the following underlying principles for the conduct 
of competitions: 

On the Forms of Competition. 

The following forms of competition are recog- 
nized : 

1. Limited : In this form, participation is limited 
to a certain number of architects, of ample qualifica- 
tion, whose names are stated in the program and to 
any one of whom the owner is willing to entrust the 

18 



work. This form is generally employed by con- 
servative owners having large interests at stake. It 
has the advantage that the owner, and the pro- 
fessional adviser, may meet the competitors and fully 
discuss the terms of the competition with them be- 
fore the final issuance of the program. 

The Institute is of the opinion that, unless cogent 
reasons prevent it, competitions should be of this 
limited form. 

II. Open: (a) Open to all architects. This form 
has sometimes to be employed on account of legisla- 
tive enactment. It consists in permitting all archi- 
tects—or all within certain limits— (without regard 
to their qualifications), to take part. 

(&) Open to approved applicants. In this form 
all architects who desire to compete make applica- 
tion, accompanied by evidences of their professional 
capabilities. The owner, with the assistance of his 
professional adviser, determines which of such ap- 
plicants he deems capable of properly executing his 
work, and issues invitations to all such, or a limited 
number of them. This is obviously a much better 
form than the open competition, for if the standard 
be kept high, none but men of experience and ability 
will be admitted. Like the open competition, how- 
ever, it fails to insure the participation of architects 
of the highest standing. 

III. Mixed : In this form, a limited competition is 
conducted simultaneously with one open to ap- 
proved applicants, the program being uniform to all. 
This form has the advantage of insuring the parti- 
cipation of architects of known ability. 



19 



General Requirements. 

1 — The object of a competition is to secure the most 
skilled architect. 

2 — Nearly all owners are ignorant of architecture 
and building, and especially of drawings. There- 
fore, an architectural adviser should be employed 
to draw up a program for the competition, to as- 
sist in selecting the architects who are to com- 
pete, and to advise the owner regarding it. The 
same adviser, or better, a jury of three practic- 
ing architects should advise the employer in mak- 
ing the award. 

3 — The amount to be spent on the building, as stated 
in the program, should be sufficient to erect such 
a building, or no cost limit should be set. Archi- 
tects are no better able than other mortals to ac- 
complish the impossible, and owners simply in- 
vite trouble by tempting them to do so. 

4 — The program should be made in the form of a 
proposal on the part of the owner, fully specify- 
ing awards, payments, etc., the acceptance of 
which by the successful competitor, upon notifica- 
tion of award, will form a contract between the 
parties. 

5 — Whenever practicable the competitors and the 
professional adviser should meet with the owner, 
and agree upon terms to be binding upon all, 
(but this is seldom feasible except on very large 
work). _ 

6 — Competitors should be paid for their services as 
follows : 



20 



a — In limited competitions each competitor invited 
should be paid for his services an amount suffi- 
cient to cover the cost of the work demanded. 

b — In competitions open to all architects, a few 
should be repaid their expense — say five com- 
petitors. 

c — In mixed competitions, the architects especially- 
invited should be paid as above stated, and in ad- 
dition, prize offered for the best schemes offered, 
said prizes not to be confined to the uninvited 
competitors. 

7 — The drawings required should be the least in 
number, and sufficiently elaborated only to ex- 
press the design and arrangement of the schemes 
submitted, and each competitor should be con- 
fined to exactly the same number, style and scale 
of drawings. 

Discussion. 

The following paragraphs may well be omitted 
by any readers who already understand or approve 
the foregoing general principles of fair competition, 
but for the benefit of others a little explanation may 
be appreciated ; the numbers refer to the above para- 
graphs as discussed. 

I — Object of competition to secure best architect. 

This proposition appears self-evident, and yet all 
architects know some competitions are held in which 
the best architect is deliberately turned down for a 
local favorite, a grafter, or a smooth talker; and 
others are held merely to dispel public criticism, the 
winning architect being known all the time to the 



21 



:> 



owner. All such methods are manifestly dishonest 
and unfair whatever the motive, and architects and 
owners alike should eschew them. 
2 — Employing architectural advisers. 

If there is any occupation or profession in which 
" Fools rush in where angels fear to tread" it is in 
the designing and construction of buildings, and 
most owners consider themselves absolutely com- 
petent to select the best architectural scheme from 
among any number submitted to them. The utter 
fallacy of such misguided confidence is best proven 
by the results displayed in the many hideous struc- 
tures thus designed. Tremendous and immediate 
improvement would follow upon a change in this 
matter as herein suggested, particularly in public 
work like schools, churches, etc., etc. 

3 — Item three is self-evident. 

5 — Item five applies only to limited competitions. 

4 — 6 and 7 Contract, Payments, Professional ad- 
viser, etc. 

Most owners do not appreciate and must be taught 
that every architect who properly enters into com- 
petition for their work does so at great inconvenience 
and expense to himself, for no competitive scheme is 
worthy of anybody's consideration which is not the 
result of the most careful application of a mind 
trained in that particular line of endeavor. No fair 
minded or honest man should be willing to accept 
such services FOR NOTHING, but should be glad to 
limit the competitors for his work to such a number 
as he is willing and able to pay a fair compensation, 
proportioned to the value of their services. 



22 



As a matter of fact, a large number of com- 
petitors, even for a very important building, is 
generally a great detriment. In the largest competi- 
tions there are rarely more than five or six whose 
work is really worthy of serious consideration, ex- 
cept those competitions in which the competitors 
are carefully selected on the basis of equal and 
proven ability, and are personally invited on that 
basis. As a rule, a large number of competitors 
serves in many ways to complicate the management 
of a competition, — first, by seeming to hold out to a 
large number of persons the hope of employment 
which only one can obtain, and of which the majority 
will in reality stand no real chance of success, the 
element of chance involved tempting many into use- 
less expense and labor. On the other hand, this 
method very largely increases the labor of those 
who serve as judges in such competitions, causing 
them, if they are fair, to spend much time and effort 
upon productions which are not worthy of it. We 
doubt whether it is ever wise, or good business 
judgment, to consider more than a half dozen care- 
fully selected competitors on any contract amount- 
ing to less than $200,000, and it is very easy to in- 
form applicants who are too late that the number 
has been limited and the list filled. 

The expense incurred by the employment of a 
professional adviser and by the paid competition 
itself will be many times repaid in the excellent re- 
sults obtained in the finished building. The charges 
of such professional advisers and the proper amount 
to pay competitors may always be proportioned to 
the magnitude of the building project itself, and 
only a very small proportion of the total expendi- 

23 



ture, comparatively speaking, need ever be set aside 
for these purposes, but in all cases where each com- 
petitor is paid it is a fair proposition for the owner to 
require that all schemes presented under such con- 
ditions shall remain his own property. By this 
method he secures not only the benefit of studying 
the solution of his problem as offered by several 
competent men, but also has the benefit of the com- 
parative criticism of his professional adviser with 
reference to all of the schemes. Further, the archi- 
tect whom he finally employs may honorably be per- 
mitted to inspect the various schemes before under- 
taking his own final study of the project. Surely no 
argument is required to show that the advantage of 
such procedure is all on the side of the owner, and in 
the interest of good architecture. 

It is almost impossible to properly judge com- 
petitions unless the competitive drawings are all 
based upon the same premises ; that is, they should all 
be drawn in the same scale ; each competitor should 
present the same number of drawings (representing 
the same definite portions or views of the building) ; 
each competitor should be required to bring his 
building within approximately the same number of 
cubic feet of contents, and the style in which the 
various drawings are rendered, gotten up and dis- 
played should be identical in the case of each com- 
petitor. Further, the number of drawings required 
should be the minimum number which is absolutely 
necessary to express the design and arrangement of 
the building, and should be as simple as possible, 
thus avoiding unnecessary expense to all concerned. 

Whatever the method may be which governs a 
competition, the utmost care should be used to 

24 



guarantee to every competitor therein an ABSO- 
LUTELY EQUAL opportunity to present his plans 
and ideas and to receive from the owner every con- 
sideration which is shown to each other competitor. 
The program should be drawn up explicitly and 
carefully stating all conditions of the competition, 
and each competitor should be supplied with an 
identical copy of this program. Any communication 
whatever which is held between any competitor and 
the owner, prior to the time of the competition, 
should be in writing, and should be made known, 
with the reply thereto, in full to every other com- 
petitor, and an equal opportunity offered to each of 
the others. It should also be borne in mind by the 
owner that the real purpose of a fair competition is 
not to obtain advice or counsel from architects 
gratuitously, but, as previously stated, to select the 
MOST SKILLFUL ARCHITECT and the BEST 
ARCHITECTURAL SCHEME among those con- 
sidered. 



25 



THE SCHOOL ROOM. 

The controlling elements in planning a school 
building are the class rooms and the communica- 
tions, the former being, of course, the fundamental 
unit in every school house design. Experience dem- 
onstrates that for the utmost efficiency a school room 
in an elementary building should not seat more than 
forty pupils, but in high schools, the work being 
done largely by lectures, no definite limit can be 
placed upon the seating capacity of rooms. 

Size of Rooms. — In school rooms each pupil has a 
desk, and under ideal conditions the rooms should be 
proportioned to allow 20 square feet of floor space 
and 260 cubic feet of volume for each pupil, but 
under no conditions should these figures be less 
than 15 square feet of floor space and 200 cubic 
feet of volume per pupil. It is almost uni- 
versal practice to make school rooms slightly 
oblong with the teacher's desk at one end of the 
room, in the proportion of 24 feet by 30 feet and 25 
feet by 32 feet, etc., with ceiling heights of not less 
than 12 feet or more than 14 feet. Primary school 
rooms should not be made smaller than other rooms 
in elementary buildings because activity is ab- 
solutely vital in small children, and the rooms should 
be ample in size to provide opportunity for much 
physical exercise, outside of net seating space. 

Lighting 1 . — Some architects have resorted to the 
use of prismatic glass in lighting school rooms pro- 



26 







""I 


1 n 


□ □ □ 


an" 


1 [=] 


a a □ 


a □ i 


□ 


□ □ □ 


□ a 


1 □ 


□ □ □ 


□ a 


1 □ 


□ □ □ 


□ □ ■ 


t I==1 

1 □ 


□ □ □ 

□ □ p 


□ □"* i 


□ 


ana 


□ a 


It — 


z4-<A 







a 


□ 


□ 


□ 


□ 


□ 


□ 


□ 


□ 


□ 


□ 


□ 


□ 


□ 


□ 


□ 


□ 


□ 


□ 


□ 


□ 


□ a a 




Fig B 




Fig A 'Fig C 

LIGHTING AND SEATING OF SCHOOL ROOMS. 

The upper drawings show ideal designs for school 
rooms, one to seat 48 and the other 40 pupils. Dimensions 
given, also the arrangement of windows, heat and vent 
flues, door, etc., correspond with the best present day 
practice. Some authorities insist upon two exits, and such 
should be the case in non-fireproof buildings. 

Fig. A, illustrates imperfect lighting with dark spaces 
between windows and in corners. 

Fig. B, is a vertical section through the school room, 
illustrating the light shut out near ceiling by transom 
bars and fancy top windows. 

Fig. C, is a similar section showing correct location of 
windows with reference to floor and ceiling. 

27 



ducing a glare annoying to both teachers and pupils, 
but under ordinary conditions of lighting it may be 
stated emphatically that the school room can not be 
too well lighted. The writers on school hygiene, and 
the laws of different states vary somewhat, but there 
is substantial agreement that the amount of trans- 
parent glass surface admitting light to school rooms 
should in no case be less than one-fifth of the floor 
space of the room, while the laws of some states re- 
quire one-fourth of the floor space in actual glass 
area. In rooms with ceilings 13 feet or more in 
height it is easily possible to secure even a higher 
ratio of glass than last stated and such opportunities 
should never be neglected. Care should also be ob- 
served to give rooms with a northern or poorly 
lighted exposure sufficient added glass surface to 
furnish the room with an abundance of light. As a 
rule, the use of prismatic glass should only be per- 
mitted in school rooms having obstructed sky lines, 
or dark exposure, and should be carefully shaded 
when the lighting justifies it. 

Direction of Light. — There is now practically no 
dissent from the opinion that the proper method of 
lighting a school room is from the left side of the 
pupils, and that if it is necessary to admit light in 
any other side of the room it must be at the rear of 
the pupils. It is, of course, out of the question to 
admit light from in front of the pupils, as the light 
shining directly into their eyes would produce im- 
mediate and serious results. It is also very bad 
practice to admit light from the right of pupils be- 
cause the great majority of children are right- 
handed and thus could not work at writing without 
casting a shadow thereon by the hand. When win- 

28 



clows are placed in the rear of the pupils, even 
though the pupils themselves may not be injured by- 
such an arrangement, the teachers are compelled to 
face the light almost continually, thus entailing risk 
of serious injury to their eyes. Further, when light 
comes from more than one direction into a school 
room the conflicting lights are almost certain to 
cause shiney places to appear on the blackboards, 
and the corners of the room between the walls con- 
taining windows are rendered too dark for use as 
blackboard spaces, whereas rooms lighted from one 
side only have a constant light on all portions of the 
walls, no shiney spots on blackboards and no dark 
corners. Thus it will be seen that there are some ob- 
jections to all lighting schemes except the one in 
which light is brought from the left of the pupils, to 
which no reasonable objections can be stated. 

The Design of Windows. — Windows in school 
rooms should always extend as near the ceiling as 
possible. It is said that actual tests show that the 
upper one-fourth of windows furnish one-third of 
the light coming through the entire window. It is 
therefore obvious that windows with transoms at the 
top and windows having arches and fancy tops 
seriously decrease the amount of light which is ad- 
mitted to school rooms and should never be used in 
school buildings. The windows in school rooms 
should also be set with the least possible space be- 
tween them, large mullions being carefully avoided, 
as these cause deep shadows producing alternate 
zones of light and shadow, which are annoying and 
injurious to the eyes. Window sills in school rooms 
are usually set about 3 feet 6 inches up from the 
floor. 

29 




Det/mi_- opOi i_i_> 



FIG. 2, WINDOW DETAILS 
30 



Finish of Walls. — The walls of school rooms 
should be finished smooth but without high gloss 
and should be painted so that they may be washed 
down and thoroughly cleaned as desired. There is 
general unanimity of preference for greenish tints 
in the decoration of school rooms, although other 
warm tints are used, particularly in rooms having 
sunless or cold exposures. Reds, yellows, blues and 
grays, — except grays of an olive tint, — should be 
avoided. The paint used should have no gloss but 
should dry flat. The ceilings may be made white or 
of a lighter tint than is used for the side walls. 

Window Shades. — Window shades in school 
rooms should be opaque. In case it is necessary to 
have the color of the shade exposed to the outside 
some particular tint to match the color of the build- 
ing, duplex shades should be used so that the inside 
surface may be of somewhat the same tint as that 
used on the walls or a trifle darker. "Window shades 
should be hung on adjustable rollers so that the en- 
tire shade, roller included, may be moved to any 
part of the window desired. Venetian blinds should 
never be used in the school room, if for no other 
reason than because they are unsanitary. 

Blackboards. — Slate blackboard is much to be 
preferred over any other sort, but several brands of 
artificial blackboard can be obtained which are 
practically satisfactory and produce excellent re- 
sults. In elementary school buildings as much 
blackboard as possible should be provided in every 
room. The height of blackboards from the floors 
should be as follows : Primary grades, 26 inches ; in- 



31 



3 

termediate grades, 30 inches; grammar grades, 36 
inches. Blackboards should be at least 3 feet 6 
inches high, and 4 feet is better. All blackboards 
should have a chalk trough at the bottom 3 inches 
wide containing a woven wire cover % inch mesh, 
easily removable. The trough may also well be fur- 
nished with clean-out holes in which the chalk dust 
may be brushed and removed by proper receptacles. 
In many of the better class of buildings mechanical 
means are provided for removing this refuse. Hooks 
should also be provided on the under side of chalk 
troughs to receive rulers or yard sticks, and in 
primary and intermediate grades a shelf may be pro- 
vided over blackboards to receive pictures, draw- 
ings and art objects, although this shelf is a dust 
catcher and other provision for pictures, etc., is 
preferred. 

Doors. — Each school room should be provided 
with at least one door 40 inches to 44 inches wide 
near the teacher's end of the room, and where 
finances will admit, the door should be glazed with 
plate glass, the lower half of which is chipped. 
Transoms may be used with the doors if desired, 
although in all buildings in which mechanical ven- 
tilating apparatus is installed the transoms should be 
made stationary and serve only for an architectural 
effect or for increased light in corridors, etc. 

Other Conveniences of the School Room. — Every 
school room should contain a small closet for the per- 
sonal use of the teacher, having sufficient space for 
the storage of her wraps and personal effects. It 
should also be made large enough to contain a limit- 



32 



ed number of books such as may be kept at the 
school room for reading to pupils, etc. Platforms for 
teachers' desks are but little used and are only pro- 
vided upon special request to meet specific con- 
ditions. 



<M 



THE SCHOOL BUILDING. 

General Character. — A principle of architecture 
generally recognized is that a building should ex- 
press by its general character the purpose for which 
it is erected, a principle very applicable to school 
buildings because it is so easy to comply with this 
requirement. The school building should be simple, 
dignified and plain and should be built of the most 
enduring materials procurable; first, because this 
contributes to its safety, permanence and endurance, 
and second, because the true character of the build- 
ing will be best expressed through such materials. 
If at all possible, not only the exterior but the in- 
terior walls should be made of masonry construction. 
The building should be as near absolutely fireproof 
as possible and in case it is more than one story in 
height, it will be found that the difference in per- 
centage of cost between a combustible building and 
a fireproof building, at the present time, is very 
small indeed. There is practically no dissent at the 
present time from the view that in every school 
building the corridors, stairways, entrances, etc., 
must be absolutely fireproof and that emergency 
exits, also fireproof, must be provided. To insist 
upon less severe requirements means to endanger 
the lives of pupils for a very niggardly saving of ex- 
pense which can be justified upon no grounds what- 
ever. 

The Building Site. — There are but few cities in the 
United States in which it is not possible to obtain 

34 



abundance of ground for school buildings in any 
part of the city. In the cities referred to the con- 
ditions must, of course, be met as they exist and for- 
tunately our largest cities are producing admirable 
results even under the conditions referred to. Every- 
where else suitable grounds may be obtained for any 
building to be erected, and the latter should be set 
as far from streets and adjoining buildings as pos- 
sible, thus ensuring (1) an abundance of free air to 
circulate all about it, (2) clear light so that every 
room in the building may be properly lighted, and 
(3) the absence of dust and noise. Various rules 
have been laid down for the proper distance to be 
left between a school building and any adjoining 
buildings, some maintaining that a line drawn from 
the foot of the wall of the school building to the top 
of the nearest structure should cover an angle not 
more than 30 degrees with the horizontal ; but in any 
case it is absolutely essential that play grounds sur- 
rounding schools should be ample and well cared 
for. Many teachers connected with the play ground 
associations of the large cities are emphatic in their 
statements that properly conducted play grounds 
are powerful factors in the moral and mental de- 
velopment of school children. It is a common saying 
that Americans, as a people, take life too seriously, 
and the utmost care should be exercised to present 
this condition in school children by definite pro- 
visions for recreation, especially as the curriculum in 
our city schools is already exacting and becoming, 
more so. 

Owing to the fact that streets in many of our 
cities run north and south or east and west, it is 



35 



.3 

usually necessary to set the buildings parallel with 
the streets, but this arrangement is not as good as 
the one which admits of setting the school building 
at an angle with the north and south direction so 
that in all seasons of the year every room in the 
building will at some time during the day receive 
direct sunlight. Medical authorities agree that the 
spread of many forms of disease can be arrested by 
an abundance of sunlight. While trees beautify the 
surroundings of the school building, care should be 
exercised not to allow them close enough to the 
building to interfere with the perfect lighting of 
every room. 

Foundation and Basement. — The foundation of 
every school building should be abundantly water 
proofed, an item in building construction which until 
recent years has not received very great attention, 
but which is now so thoroughly worked out that the 
basement may easily be made moisture proo? at 
slight expense. In the smaller school buildings of 
the country, basement stories are usually made use 
of not only for heating equipment, but for play 
rooms, etc., and in such cases it is only necessary to 
provide that all such rooms shall be clean, well 
lighted and hygienic in character. But in the larger 
and better class of buildings, economic considera- 
tions and the desire to avoid going up in the air with 
several stories, renders it advisable to make use o!. 
the basement for actual school purposes, in which 
case every rule which applies to the proper design 
of school rooms in any other story applies also to the 
basement. 



36 



Number of Stories. — There has been a rein ark- 
able change in public sentiment in recent years re- 
garding the number of stories admissible in a prop- 
erly designed school building, and it may safely be 
said that there is a strong sentiment against having 
more than two stories above the basement. In many 
cases the basement story is made the same height as 
the other stories, the basement floor being placed at 
the ground level or a very slight distance below it. 
In some of our largest cities where suitable sites can 
not be procured, it becomes absolutely necessary to 
erect buildings three and even more stories in height, 
but such design is inexcusable under other con 
ditions, and indeed some of the buildings referred to 
contain elevators for the use of pupils. There can 
be no debating the proposition that, on hygienic 
grounds, school buildings should not exceed two 
stories above basement unless elevators ai'e pro- 
vided for the use of at least female pupils. Serious 
troubles may be brought upon young growing g;rls 
by too frequent climbing of stairs arid there is, of 
course, an added danger in case of fire or panic. 

Attic. — The attic of a school building should be 
floored with a tight floor, not only because of the 
convenience of access to all parts of the building, 
but also to prevent an undue radiation of heat from 
the school rooms in winter and the super-beating of 
school rooms in the upper story in warm weather. 
In any case the greatest of care must be exercised 
in all parts of the attic to provide against lire and to 
give the attic space suitable ventilation. 

Roofs. — It will hardly be denied that there is a 
substantial preference in favor of flat rnofs for 

37 



school buildings. While it can not be denied that 
many beautiful effects are obtained by the use of 
pitched roofs especially in cases where tile and other 
ornamental coverings are used, it must be granted 
that money so expended can often be used to better 
advantage elsewhere in the building, and it is a well 
known fact that flat roofs are not only more econom- 
ically constructed, but seldom cause trouble by leak- 
age or expense for repairs. In the large cities they 
are also used as playgrounds. 

Entrances and Exits. — No school building should 
be constructed having less than two large entrances 
and exits, and all entrances and exits should be fire- 
proofed. It is perhaps safe to say that no school 
building can have too liberal provision of entrances 
and exits. No set rule can be laid down for the 
dimensions of such portions of the building without 
knowing the magnitude and capacity of the building 
in which they occur, but if builders are liberal to 
the point of extravagance in this regard it must be 
remembered that they are thereby only adding to 
the safety of the building. Steps entering school 
buildings should always be placed on the inside of 
the building. All vestibules should be large and 
roomy to provide shelter for the children and to pro- 
tect the interior corridors from direct contact with 
the outside weather. Every entrance should have a 
suitable lobby with inner and outer doors to protect 
the interior of the building from draughts and storm. 
All vestibule corridors and stairways in every school 
building should be carefully and abundantly lighted 
by direct light from outdoors, and long narrow cor- 
ridors in every case should be avoided. In many cf 



38 



the states, laws now require that all doors throughout 
the building shall open outward, and in any case 
this rule should be adhered to in school buildings. 

Corridors. — Main corridors should be at least 8 
feet wide and in buildings of eight rooms or larger, 
10 feet should be the minimum width. Secondary cor- 
ridors may be 8 feet or wider, and all corridors 
should be as straight and as perfectly lighted as pos- 
sible. See the Boston requirements. 

Stairways. — The simplest standards of common 
sense dictate that every school building should con- 
tain at least two stairways, and there is a growing 
demand that all stairways must be fireproof, but it 
is not enough simply to require that there be two 
stairways. It must also be required that they be so 
placed in the building that in case one becomes 
stopped up, because of fire or panic, the other stair- 
way will be not affected thereby. It is the height 
of bad design to have the two stairways terminate 
in one hall in the center of the building. In case the 
building is more than two stories high both stair- 
ways should be carried from the bottom of the build- 
ing to the top. Whether the stairways are fireproof 
or not, they should be enclosed in absolutely fireproof 
masonry walls from top to bottom, and in non-fire- 
proof buildings there should be direct access from 
the stairway enclosure to the ground, regardless of 
the connections between the stairways and the in- 
terior portions of the building. Large windows 
should also be provided on the stair landings, being 
accessible from the landings themselves, thus re- 
ducing the risk of panic and crowding in the stair- 
ways, not only by providing an abundance pf light 
but a means of egress from the building in case of 

39 



emergency. Circular or angle steps should never be 
permitted in a school building under any cifcum- 
stances. 

In case stairways are built fireproof they should 
be constructed of iron or steel, with treads of slate 
or treads of cast iron, containing an inserted tread 
of lead similar to the Mason Safety tread. A sim- 
ple form of iron stairway can be constructed at a 
very slight increase of cost over the ordinary type 
of stairway, all items considered. There is consider- 
able difference of opinion regarding the correct 
width for stairways, but there is comparative agree- 
ment that the maximum width of steps between rail- 
ings should not exceed five feet. In other words, if 
a flight of stairs must be 8 or 10 feet in width, it 
should be separated in the middle by a balustrade 
consisting of an iron railing and screen between the 
railings and steps, thus making an equivalent of two 
stairways in one. In case this arrangement is fol- 
lowed an iron rail should continue around the plat- 




Ideal Stairway 
Double Width 




Ideal Stairway 
Single Width 



Details of .Stairways 



FIG* 3 

form as shown in figure (3). It is well to avoid 
more than two runs of steps between one floor and 
the next, and never to permit a single stair run with- 

40 



out a landing. In the best design the two runs 
should be in reverse directions, and so designed that 
there is no opening or well left between the runs. 
The landings of stairways and the spaces at bottom 
and top of same should always be liberal, and many 
authorities recommend the filling out of square cor- 
ners as shown in figure (3). The height of risers 
in school stairways should never exceed 7 inches, 
and from 6 inches to 6V2 inches is much better prac- 
tice. 

Floors. — It is almost generally conceded that for 
finishing floors of school rooms rrrnpU is preferable 
to all other woods because of its toughness and the 
closeness of its grain. While it is not as hard as 
oak, yet the latter is much more objectionable be- 
cause of its open grain. Rift sawed Georgia pine 
has also been used extensively for school room loors, 
but, in case the maple can not be procured to ad- 
vantage, the writer prefers to finish school room 
floors with plastic cement of which there are several 
first class brands on the market. These are especial- 
ly fine for corridors and toilet rooms where money 
is not available for tile or marble. These cements 
are fireproof and do not produce any dust from the 
friction of human feet, such as is the case with 
ordinary cement floors. Further, seats or furniture 
may be fastened to the floor in same manner as wood 
flooring and all cracks and unhygienic features are 
absolutely removed. But best of all, by the use of such 
materials for flooring, it is possible to make a cove 
and base continuous with the floor, as shown in figure 
(4), thus rendering the floor one of the sanitary 
features of the school room. Such floorings are also 
very easily cleaned and kept clean. For sound- 

41 



proofing of floors in non-fireproof buildings the 
writer usually follows the plan indicated in figure 
(4), from which it will be seen than an air space 
is provided between the sub-floor and finishing floor, 
which with an abundance of deadening felt should 
be almost impervious to the passage of ordinary 
school room sounds. 




FIG. 4 

Plastering. — The plastering used in school build- 
ings should be what is known as hard or cement 
plaster finished with a smooth white coat to be dec- 
orated with paint. Corners of walls and ceilings 
should be concave and all fancy cornices, mouldings, 
etc., should be avoided. No school building should 
be covered with wall paper or finished with a rough 
surface which would prevent washing or wiping 
down the walls at frequent periods during the school 
year, if advisable. 

Wainscoting. — Wainscoting should never be 
used in a school building unless money enough is 
available to render it possible to use glazed brick 
or tile. "Wainscoting of wood is unsanitary, soon 
becomes unsightly and also increases fire risk. 

Coat Rooms. — There is perhaps no feature of 
school design upon which there is, at the present 

42 



day, a greater divergence of opinion than the ques- 
tion of coat rooms. It is generally conceded that in 
primary and grammar school buildings the coat 
room should be connected with the school room, but 
some authorities hold that there should be tight 
doors between coat rooms and school rooms, while 
other authorities contend that there should be mere- 
ly openings between the two, these latter holding 
that the foul air in finding its way to the vent 
stacks should proceed from the school room into the 
coat room and thence out through vents to the roof. 
Under this plan there is no access direct from the 
coat room to the corridor. Other authorities prefer 
connection between the coat room and corridor and 
a separate ventilating system for the coat rooms from 
that which serves the school rooms. Still other 
authorities recommend a system of large closets in 
connection with the school rooms themselves, as 
shown in scheme (3), the door of the coat closet 
consisting of a rolling or sliding partition which is 
lowered to the floor after the wraps are in place, 
this partition containing vent registers at the bot- 
tom. In any case it may be said that the minimum 
size for a coat room adjoining a standard class room 
should be 125 square feet floor space and that coat 
rooms must, if possible, be well lighted and in every 
case thoroughly ventilated. In buildings above the 
grammar grades the almost universal practice, at the 
present day, is to provide separate coat rooms not 
located in connection with the school rooms which 
they serve, and in the better buildings lockers are 
provided for the use of each pupil, the entire system 
of coat rooms being included in the system of forced 
ventilation of the building. 

43 



Co/vr Room 



Scheme No 1 



Scheme No 3 



Coat Room 

V E I st Fl u. 



Iter Door.5- Only Openings 



3 



Scheme No 2 



r 








| 


Lift,p., Partition 
Blackboard Fron 


Hi 


of 



u 


L 






Scheme. .Ncr4 

IxAlMPLES OF MoDE.Rr4 

Coat Room Arrangements 



FIG. 5 



Figure 5 illustrates four coat room schemes all in 
common use. Advantages are claimed for each one. In 
fireproof buildings perhaps scheme No. 3 is most used be- 
cause of economy. Of the others, the author prefers 
scheme No. 2. 



44 




n 


D- 


c 


D 


frS 


B 


J-&.5 





Elevation 
Looking Toward Coat Rach 

Key 

b= blackboard 

E>-5= Book Shelved 

C = Teachers Ci.o.sjet 

H'f « Meat |nj_et 



FIG. 6 



Figure 6 illustrates a type of coat closet, which is 
hardly a coat room, but is more like a coat rack or ward- 
robe. It consists of a rack or frameworK about eight feet 
high, erected about five feet away from the wall contain- 
ing heat and vent registers. 

The back or wall side of this rack contains hooks for 
clothing, but no doors or covering for same. The front or 
room side of the rack may oe covered with blackboard, 
may contain shelves for books, or both blackboard and 
shelves as shown. 

Admirers of this scheme claim many advantages for 
it, but chiefly that it enables teachers to have surveillance 
of the coat room space without leaving the school room. 
To offset this and other advantages claimed, however, it 
must be granted that the scheme is unsightly, unsanitary, 
wasteful of space and more expensive than any other coat 
hanging scheme above described. 



4f, 



SPECIAL ROOMS. 

Apparatus Rooms. — In every school building to 
contain any considerable quantity of apparatus such 
as high school buildings, suitable rooms should be 
provided for the storage and care of such apparatus, 
and in proportion to the value of the apparatus 
is it important that such rooms should be 
fire-proof and fool-proof. They should be provided 
with suitable cases in which the apparatus may be 
protected from dust and interference, the cases be- 
ing furnished with lock and key so as to be kept 
under the control of the head of the department at 
all times. It is always desirable to have apparatus 
rooms connected with physical and chemical labor- 
atories, and the floor area of same should equal 
about one-fourth to one-third that of the laboratory. 

Astronomy Room. — High schools which are 
equipped with observatories should have a small 
room adjacent to the observatory which may be 
heated in cold weather, as the observatory itself is 
always cold. This room may also contain cases for 
small instruments. 

Assembly Rooms or Auditoriums. — Two different 
systems are used in the designing of American high 
school buildings with regard to Assembly Halls. In 
some, especially those located in small cities and 
towns, the Assembly Hall is intended for use only as 
a public Auditorium, in which ample stage facilities 
are necessary together with provision for stereopti- 
can entertainments, and in which audiences of from 

47 



800 to 1500 persons may be seated. In other build- 
ings the Assembly Hall partakes more of the nature 
of a study room, being seated with desks and in- 
tended for the use of pupils only. In still other 
buildings the stage equipment is provided even 
though the room be seated with desks for study pur- 
poses, and in such schools the Assembly Hall is 
used not only for a study room but also for such 
literary and chapel exercises as are conducted for 
or by the pupils. In either of the latter schemes the 
hall must be large enough to accommodate all pupils 
of that building at one sitting, this end being ac- 
complished by different means in different build- 
ings. 

Under the present heading, reference is had only 
to the room intended as an auditorium in which no 
desks are provided and the following are the im- 
portant items regarding same. Such rooms should 
never be placed higher than the second floor of a 
building and never lower than the first floor, provid- 
ing the basement story is out of the ground, a 
"ground floor" Assembly Hall being favored by all 
authorities and required by law in some states. If 
galleries are used, entrance to the same may be had 
from the second floor. Auditoriums in school build- 
ings should be provided with a stage as high as pos- 
sible and at least 15 feet in depth behind the cur- 
tain and should be equipped with a rigging loft, 
dressing rooms and a small amount of drop scenery 
and curtains, much the same as may be found in 
theaters. The larger and more elaborate the Audi- 
torium, the more liberal and better equipped should 
be the stage. The floors of school Auditoriums are 



48 



almost invariably made level, or at least with very- 
slight incline, no attempt being made to copy thea- 
ters in this regard. 

Direct current outlet contained in an iron box 
should be located in gallery to supply light for the 
lanterns, and a white curtain may well be included 
in the equipment of the stage for the same purpose. 
An ample switchboard should be provided on the 
stage by which every light in the Auditorium may 
be controlled at will, both separately and as a whole, 
and the stage should be lighted with foot lights, bor- 
ders, etc., in much the same manner as the stage of 
a small theatre, all being controlled from the switch- 
board. 

Means of exit must be provided directly from the 
Auditorium to the ground outside regardless of exits 
provided inside of the building, and no Auditorium 
should be placed high enough above ground to ren- 
der this impossible. 

Balance Room. — In the larger and more complete 
high schools a small room is provided in connection 
with physical laboratory in which delicate balances 
are kept in cases for experimental purposes. These 
rooms need not be larger than 50 square feet area. 

Biological Rooms. — In the better high J schools 
biological rooms consist of a pupil's laboratory, a 
private laboratory for the instructor, a dark room 
and apparatus room all of which are described under 
their several headings below. The biological labor- 
atory should be abundantly lighted and equipped 
with cabinet desks containing a drawer for each 
pupil having the use of such desk, also glass 
cases for specimens, and also containing suitable 

49 



r 



demonstration table, preferably with slate top, and 
instructor's desk. Equipment of private laboratory 
and apparatus room may be made as simple or 
elaborate as available finances will permit. The size 
of biological or other laboratories is dependent upon 
the number of pupils required to use them. If the 
building contains a conservatory it should adjoin 
the biological laboratory. 

Bicycle Room. — In cities and towns where bicy- 
cles are used to any extent it is advantageous to 
have provision in school buildings for a bicycle room 
containing permanent bicycle racks, and a bicycle 
run from ground level down to the room. Such 
rooms should be provided with substantial locks. 

Board Room. — In many places it is necessary to 
provide rooms in the school building for the use of 
the Board of Education, the size of which should be 
proportioned to the number of members on the 
Board. Such rooms should always be provided with 
private toilet room, and if possible a telephone closet 
and fireproof vault. If the Clerk of the Board is a 
permanent employe, who devotes his entire time to 
the work of the Board, an additional work room 
should be provided for his use having abundant 
light. 

Boiler Room. — The boiler room for school build- 
ings should if possible always be located outside of 
the main building. In case this is impossible the 
floor above boiler room should be made both fire- 
proof and heat-proof regardless of the construction 
of the balance of the building. Boiler rooms must 
always be at least twice the length of the boilers 
themselves to provide for cleaning flues, and in case 

50 



fuel is also contained in the same room abundant 
provision must be made for storing same. No boiler 
room should be less than 12 ft. clear height and con- 
siderably more height is advisable. 

Business Department. — The Business Department 
in high schools should contain at least three rooms, 
one each for bookkeeping, shorthand and typewrit- 
ing. Ordinarily the room for bookkeeping is made 
the size of an ordinary school room and the other 
two rooms about one-half this size. The rooms for 
shorthand and typewriting may be separated simply 
by a glass partition, and be so located that one in- 
structor may oversee both rooms. The three rooms 
of this department should be well lighted, located en- 
suite, and in the more elaborate buildings may also 
be supplied with an additional small room for the 
instructor's private use. 

Chemistry Rooms. — Rooms for the study of chem- 
istry in high schools include lecture room, labor- 
atory, apparatus room, balance room and dark room. 
The size of the lecture room and class room is do- 
pendent on the number of students required to use 
them, and the other rooms proportioned thereto. 
The equipment of the laboratory may be as elaborate 
and complete as finances will admit, but in any case 
it is advisable to use work tables having closed hoods 
which are connected with suction pipes under the 
floor and these, in turn, with vent risers in the walls 
leading to an exhaust fan by me&ns of which all air 
in the laboratory may be drawn through the work 
tables and forced out doors; this method of ven- 
tilation preventing the escape of foul odors into the 



51 



r 



building. The chemical laboratory should also be 
provided with a floor drain readily accessible at all 
times. 

Clerk's Office.— The data for a Clerk's Office may 
be found under the head of Board Rooms. 

Coal Room. — Coal rooms should be located out- 
side of building if possible but always in conjunction 
with boiler or furnace room. They shonld be large 
enough to contain not less than a half season's sup- 
ply of coal, and if possible a supply for the full sea- 
son. 

Coat Rooms. — This topic is treated in conjunc- 
tion with school rooms but as here employed refers 
to those rooms, in the larger high school build- 
ings, which are centrally located and intended to con- 
tain the wraps for an entire floor or any other large 
number of pupils. Two systems prevail in this re- 
gard, one being the use of steel or other closed 
lockers, each pupil being provided with his own 
locker and the key thereto ; and the other system con- 
sisting of open racks in which the wraps are allowed 
to hang on individual hooks and are kept under the 
espionage only of the janitor. The users of both 
systems seem to be satisfied, so that it is largely a 
matter of individual choice. 

Commercial Rooms. — See paragraph on Business 
Rooms. 

Conservatory. — In large and elaborate high 
schools a conservatory is provided in connection 
with the Biological Laboratory. This is a room con- 
structed all of glass, located on a sunny side of the 
building and so arranged with piping that it may be 
kept at any desired degree of temperature uniform- 






ly. It usually contains an aquarium and a counter- 
table under the windows constructed of slate and 
supported on brass pipe. It should be separated 
from the Biological Laboratory by a partition all of 
glass, and the frame work of the outside should be 
constructed in the same manner as the highest grade 
hot-houses, preferably of metal frame with glass 
filling. 

Dark Rooms. — Dark rooms are considered one of 
the essentials of modern high school buildings to pro- 
vide for photographic work. They may be very 
small, — not over fifty square feet area, — and should 
be provided with a sink, running water and two or 
three convenient shelves. The chief essential of these 
rooms is that they must be absolutely dark, be paint- 
ed on the inside with dull black paint and be separ- 
ated from any outside room by two doors or some 
other device which will render it impossible by ac- 
cident, or otherwise, for any daylight to be admitted 
into the room while experiments are going on. 

Directors' Room. — In connection with large and 
complete gymnasiums, at least one and preferably 
two rooms should be provided for the personal use 
of the Director, this room being connected with the 
gymnasium itself by a glass door or partition and 
being well lighted, although skylight will answer for 
this purpose. 

Dining Room. — In buildings containing depart- 
ments of domestic science a small dining-room is de- 
sirable in connection with the room in which cooking 
experiments are conducted. This room need not be 
large, say 180 square feet. 



53 



Domestic Science. — The department of domestic 
science in present day high schools as a rnle com- 
prises two departments called by some domestic 
economy and domestic art, the former consisting of 
a department for the study of cooking and the latter 
for the study of sewing, etc. The room for domestic 
economy is much like a laboratory, and its size will 
be dependent upon the number of pupils to be ac- 
commodated, the work being done at specially de- 
signed tables which must be so disposed as to leave 
abundance of working room all around them. Pro- 
vision must be made for carrying gas supplies to 
each table and plumbing supplies to each sink, and 
in addition, a general sink of liberal dimensions and 
preferably of slate or soapstone should also be pro- 
vided. Ample provision must be made for cup- 
boards for the storage of utensils, dishes, etc., and 
it is advisable if possible to provide for a small ice- 
box for the preservation of food supplies. 

The room for domestic art or sewing seldom needs 
to be larger than the ordinary school room unit and 
in many buildings only half this area is ample. The 
chief requirement for this room is an abundance of 
light and ventilation. 

Drawing Rooms. — Every modern high school 
must make provision for both free-hand and mechan- 
ical drawing, and while not necessary, it is usually 
advisable that the rooms for these two departments 
shall be close together and communicating. A first 
requisite for drawing rooms is an abundance of 
light, preferably north light, but skylight is alsft 
acceptable, especially for free-hand drawing. Draw- 
ing rooms should contain cases for books, studies 



54 



and models, a teacher's desk and abundant pro- 
vision for drawing tables, easels and chairs or stools. 
The room for free-hand drawing should contain a 
shelf not less than 18 inches wide and about 2 feet 
6 inches above the floor, and also a second shelf about 
12 inches wide located 7 feet or 8 feet above the floor, 
both shelves extending clear around the room except 
where windows and doors are located. The wall 
space between these two shelves should be covered 
with Compo board or other soft material which will 
readily take thumb tacks, and the outside surface of 
same should then be covered with burlap of a neutral 
tint. 

Dressing Rooms. — Two, and preferably four 
small dressing-rooms should be provided in con- 
nection with the stage of auditoriums or assembly 
halls, and, while it is not necessary, it is nevertheless 
advisable that these rooms should have outside light 
and ventilation and stationary lavatory in each 
room. Gas lights should also be provided as well as 
electric lights. 

Engine Room. — In every building containing 
machinery, such as engines, dynamos, etc., a separate 
room or rooms must be provided to contain the same 
so that this delicate machinery may not be con- 
taminated with the dust from boiler or coal rooms, 
and so that all machinery units may be kept within 
close compass, thus being more easily attended to by 
the engineer. The electric switchboard should al- 
ways be located in the engine room, and this room 
should have connection by telephone or speaking 
tube with the office of the principal or superinten- 
dent of the building. The engine room should be 



55 



lighted from outdoors if possible, should be equipped 
with a clock containing the program or control and 
alarm bell, providing the same are used else- 
where in the building. The engine room should also 
contain a sink and water-closet for the engineer's 
use, either in the room itself or connected directly 
therewith. 

Fan Room. — Where blast fans are used for heat- 
ing school rooms, ample provision must be made for 
them in the proper location. Most architects err in 
locating fan rooms by not providing for sufficient 
height or proper means of obtaining fresh out- 
side air. It is always wise if possible to have fans 
located near the center of the building so that the 
work to be done will be symmetrically divided on 
both sides of the fan. 

Furnace Room. — The general requirements of 
furnace rooms are similar to those of boiler rooms ex- 
cept for the provision regarding cleaning of flues, 
but abundance of space should be left in front of 
furnaces for firing space. The height of rooms to 
contain hot air furnaces need not be made as great 
as that for rooms to contain boilers. 

Gymnasium. — "Where gymnasiums are used in 
school buildings it is safe to figure on an area for 
the gymnasium itself of about 8 or 10 square feet per 
pupil in the building, but every well equipped gym- 
nasium should also have locker rooms, and rooms for 
shower baths and toilets for each sex in addition to 
the gymnasium itself. The height of a gymnasium 
should be not less than 20 feet and should be made 25 
feet in the clear if possible. It is impossible to lay 
down any definite rule for the equipment of gym- 

56 



nasiums, locker rooms, etc., because the require- 
ments and supply of money are seldom the same in 
any two cases. Elsewhere in this book may be found 
the equipment schedule of the Boston public schools, 
which is a safe guide. 

It is generally considered best to locate gym- 
nasiums in basement stories, as it is much easier to 
sound-proof the ceiling than it is to sound-proof 
floors, which would be necessary in case the gym- 
nasium were located in the upper stories. Every 
gymnasium must be provided with the most liberal 
provision for ventilation and, if possible, also have 
outside light, although the latter is not an absolute 
essential. It is not necessary that gymnasiums should 
be heated to a high degree, but provision should be 
made so that this matter may be within control. 

Wherever possible, running tracks are provided 
in gymnasiums, the chief requirement of which is 
that no radius of any turns in same should be less 
than 15 feet, and that the floor of running track 
should be slanted to allow for the inclination of the 
runners' bodies. It is well to cover the floor of run- 
ning tracks with cork, and also to have the slant 
especially designed so that the curves will be exactly 
correct. It is also of vital importance to so design 
the supports of running tracks that it will be im- 
possible for runners to collide with them in going 
around the track, no matter how close to the outside 
rail they may be running. 

The ideal floor for gymnasium is hard maple, cut 
opposite to the grain of the wood, although some 
authorities recommend hard asphalt set in concrete 
and covered with linoleum. The use of pressed brick 



57 



for inside walls of gymnasiums is preferable to any 
other wall covering, although hard plaster is used in 
some places. The circular iron stairway from the 
running track to the floor of gymnasium, and also 
the brass sliding pole, are features which may well be 
included in the building equipment. 

Janitor's Room. — Where the machinery is looked 
after by the janitor, the engine room will answer the 
double purpose and no extra janitor's room be re- 
quired, but in buildings containing no engine room 
and in buildings in which separate engineers are 
provided, the janitor should be given a room for his 
own use, containing toilet facilities and space for 
storage. 

Kindergarten. — Primary, and in some cases in- 
termediate school buildings, should have two kinder- 
garten rooms, separated by sliding or folding doors, 
these rooms so isolated that games and music will 
not disturb other classes. The floors and walls 
should be carefully sound-proofed. These rooms 
should never be located above the first floor and 
should be provided with a separate toilet-room, 
equipped with low fixtures of special pattern for the 
use of children. A circle should be painted on th(? 
floor and the walls of the room may well be finished 
in the manner described for drawing rooms, so as to 
provide for pictures, models, etc. 

Kitchen. — In all school buildings where lunches 
are served to pupils, it is advisable to provide for a 
kitchen, the size and equipment of which will be de- 
pendent on the number of pupils daily to be taken 
care of. In any such room, however, ample smoke 



58 



flues must be provided, a liberal sink equipped with 
hot and cold water, and such other equipment as the 
circumstances of the case demand. 

Library Room. — Most American cities of the 
present day have large libraries, so that it is rarely 
necessary to provide a library in school buildings 
larger than necessary to contain such works of ref- 
erence as are especially required in the curriculum 
of the school. In every case, however, a library 
should be well lighted, conveniently located, equip- 
ped with metallic book-cases and also with good, 
comfortable chairs and tables. In some of the larger 
high schools libraries are made sufficiently large to 
accommodate an entire class at one time. In smaller 
buildings where no separate library is possible pro- 
vision is usually made in the superintendent's or 
principal's office for sufficient book-cases to answer 
the purpose. 

Locker Rooms. — In connection with the gym- 
nasium in basement, locker rooms should be pro- 
vided for each sex, which should be well ventilated 
but may be lighted either by skylight or artificial 
light if necessary. The lockers usually employed are 
of sheet steel construction, and usually two tiers in 
height, provided with a lock and key for the use of 
each pupil. Locker rooms usually also contain com- 
partments about 4 feet square built of slate or mar- 
ble partitions, and having either doors or curtains 
at the front, these compartments being used as dress- 
ing-rooms for the purpose of classes doing gym- 
nasium work. Locker rooms must always have im- 
mediate access to the gymnasium and also to the 
rooms containing shower baths and toilets. 



59 



Locker rooms are also provided in the upper por- 
tions of some school buildings, as described under the 
heading of coat rooms. "Wherever locker rooms are 
provided and steel lockers made use of, it is wise to 
insist upon patterns which are connected with the 
exhaust ventilating system, so that air may be sucked 
through the lockers, thence to the wall risers and 
thus out doors. 

Lunch Rooms. — In nearly all large cities, high 
school buildings must be provided with lunch rooms 
for the convenience of pupils. In some buildings 
these rooms are not provided with conveniences for 
serving any sort of food, but are merely intended to 
provide a place in which pupils may eat lunches 
brought with them to school. This case is very sim- 
ple, requiring simply a room of ample size and con- 
venient location, equipped with broad-armed lunch 
chairs, such as are used in the various dairy lunches 
throughout the country. In other places provision is 
made for serving warm food, and in such cases 
kitchens must be provided as above described and 
permanent lunch tables or counters at which the 
food may be served. It is impossible to give any 
general requirements, owing to the great difference 
in custom throughout the country in this regard. 

Manual Training Department. — Manual Training 
Departments of present day school buildings usually 
consist of rooms in which are taught the art of join- 
ery, wood-turning, forging and metal working. This 
department should also always be provided with a 
liberal stock room for the storage of materials and 
tools. Manual training work is usually done in 
basement stories, and in portions of the building so 



60 



located that the noise can not easily interfere with 
the work in other portions of the building. Forges 
should, if possible, be connected with down draft 
suction pipes leading to exhaust fans, so that all 
smudge in these rooms may be forcibly drawn out and 
forced into the open air without contaminating the 
balance of the building. The equipment of each of 
the rooms or departments named depends entirely 
upon the scope of the work being undertaken, the 
number of pupils engaged in the work and the 
finances available for the building and equipenmt. 

Museum. — Many school buildings contain mu- 
seums, the chief requirements of which are that they 
should be well lighted, should be fire-proof and 
equipped with the necessary cases of proper design 
for displaying the exhibits belonging to the school. 

Music Room. — As a general rule music is taught 
in separate classes, but many buildings also contain 
separate rooms for the teaching of music. Such 
rooms need not be seated with desks but use may be 
made of the wide armed lecture chair ordinarily 
used in lecture rooms. Blackboard space must be 
provided and some musical instrument such as 
piano or organ. 

Observatory. — Where high schools are equipped 
with observatories it is essential that the walls sup- 
porting same must be solid masonry from the 
ground to the observatory floor, and it is also es- 
sential that the floor upon which the observers walk 
must not at any point be in contact with the floor 
which supports the instruments. The designing of 
observatories is an art in itself and the utmost care 
should be exercised in providing for one which will 

61 



work satisfactorily. The majority of high school 
observatories in existence at the present time are not 
satisfactory. 

Physical Laboratory. — As stated with regard to 

other laboratories, the size and equipment of the 
physics laboratory is dependent upon the number of 
pupils, the size of the building and the financial 
assets in hand. In the larger buildings the physical 
laboratory is arranged en suite with a physics lec- 
ture room, apparatus room, balance room, dark room 
and also, where possible, a private laboratory and 
office for the instructor of the department. The chief 
requirement of design in the physical laboratory is 
that none of the work tables should contain any 
metal whatever in their construction and that where- 
ever it is necessary to use metal in any portion of 
the room, it should not be of iron or steel. The 
physical laboratory should be so arranged and de- 
signed that it will be as free from vibrations as 
possible, and most authorities prefer this depart- 
ment to be located directly upon the ground in the 
basement story. 

Play Rooms. — In grade buildings throughout the 
country, play rooms should be provided but these 
are almost invariably located in the basement. They 
should be made as cheerful as possible, one being 
provided for each sex, and directly connected with 
toilet rooms. It is also advisable to have doors 
opening to the outside from basement play rooms 
and that stone or cement stairways be provided to 
give access directly therefrom to the playground 
outside. A splendid finish for the interior walls of 
play rooms is pressed brick. 



62 



Principal's Office. — Every school building su- 
pervised by a principal should contain an office for 
the use of the principal, and in large and important 
buildings both a public and private office and pri- 
vate toilet room should be arranged for the use of 
the principal. In buildings where the Board of 
Education or its Clerk do not have their offices, it is 
important that the principal should have a fire- 
proof vault connected with his office. 

Recitation Room. — Rooms for recitation purposes 
only, as distinguished from class rooms, differ there- 
from in the matter of size and in the method of seat- 
ing. Ordinary school rooms usually have fixed and 
permanent desks. Eecitation rooms are usually 
equipped with wide armed lecture room chairs. 
School rooms seldom provide for more or less than 
forty pupils, but class rooms are arranged with pro- 
vision for seating any number from twenty to one 
hundred. Such rooms seating more than forty pupils 
usually have the floors arranged in steps so that 
pupils in the rear seats may see over the heads of 
those in front. The rules for direction of lighting 
school rooms are not held to be as immutable, in the 
case of recitation rooms, as they are in ordinary 
school rooms. 

Rest Rooms. — Every school building should con- 
tain at least one emergency or rest room which may 
be used by pupils of either sex taken suddenly ill. 
These rooms should have a pleasant, sunny exposure, 
be well lighted and connected directly with a private 
toilet room. They should be equipped with a couch 
or davenport, easy chairs, a table and reading mat- 
ter, and should have a small cupboard containing 



63 



medicine and other conveniences suitable for ren- 
dering first aid to the injured or sick. 

Stage. — For description of stage requirements 
see Assembly Room, Dressing Room, etc. 

Superintendent's Office. — The requirements for 
Superintendent's rooms are identical with those 
given for principal's office. 

Shower Rooms. — In connection with gymnasiums, 
provision should be made for separate rooms for the 
use of each sex, equipped with shower baths. The 
type of baths to be used are fully described in the 
chapter on sanitation. In, or adjacent to the shower 
room, should also be provided toilet rooms of ample 
capacity and correct design. The floor of shower 
rooms, locker rooms, toilet rooms, etc., should be of 
tile if possible. 

Science Lecture Room. — Every important high 
school building should be equipped with a large lec- 
ture room for the teaching of science, the floor being 
arranged in steps to provide for the seating of 
classes in chairs. The science lecture room should be 
provided with facilities for lantern exhibitions and 
should have a large and complete demonstration 
table with slate top on which scientific experiments 
of various sorts may be performed. The lighting in 
the room should be so arranged as to be controlled 
by a switch, located on or near this demonstration 
table, and some provision should be made whereby 
the windows may be absolutely dark at the will of 
the instructor upon a moment's notice. 

Study Rooms. — In high school buildings where i 
the plan of separating the classes into general study 



64 



rooms is followed, these rooms are made of a size 
sufficient to seat one or more classes together at a 
time at desks, such as freshmen-sophomore, junior- 
senior, etc., and where this plan is followed the 
general rules as to area per pupil, ventilation, light- 
ing, etc., given in chapter on school rooms, should 
be followed. It is also important where the study 
room system is used that ample locker or coat rooms 
be located in proximity thereto, for obvious reasons. 

Toilet Rooms. — The equipment of toilet rooms is 
fully discussed under the head of sanitation, etc., 
and it will suffice to say here that separate toilet 
rooms must be provided for each sex, and must be 
well lighted and ventilated. If possible, the ventila- 
tion must be performed by the suction of air through 
the fixtures, thence into the wall risers and out doors, 
this system being entirely separate from the gen- 
eral ventilating system of the building. Wherever 
possible, separate private toilet rooms should be ar- 
ranged for the use of teachers of each sex, although 
these may be adjacent to the rooms used by pupils. 

Vault. — Fire-proof vaults should be provided as 
stated in paragraph on principal's office and Board 
Room. 



65 



SANITATION. 

No effort will be made in these pages to deal 
with the subject of school hygiene which covers 
every aspect of school life likely to affect the health 
of children, such as periods of study, care of the 
eyes, discipline, medical inspection, etc., as the pur- 
pose of the present work is to cover the essentials of 
correct school buildings without reference to ad- 
ministration. 

Heating and ventilation also properly come under 
the head of sanitation, as nothing is more important 
for correct sanitary conditions than pure air, but 
this subject will be treated in a separate chapter. 
Sanitation as here considered, will have reference 
only to those features of the school buildings them- 
selves which conduce to healthfulness and comfort. 

Walls. — In a previous chapter the recommenda- 
tion has been offered that school walls should be 
finished smooth and decorated with paint, also that 
corners and mouldings should be finished round 
so as to admit of easy cleaning. The first step 
in the proper sanitation of the school building 
is to have it so designed as to be easily and perfectly 
cleaned. "When these provisions have been made in 
the building itself, proper hygienic conditions of 
walls will be maintained if janitors are forced fre- 
quently and thoroughly to brush or wash down the 
walls, and if provision is made for having them re- 
coated with paint at reasonable intervals. 

67 



In the designing of school rooms the use of wood 
frames around doors and windows should be reduced 
to a minimum, and the finish should be made as nearly 
like that which is used in hospitals as possible. It 
will be found that it is not necessary to use casing 
around windows and doors, such as is used com- 
monly in dwelling houses, but that the jambs of 
doors and windows may be formed as shown in 
figure (2p30), thus eliminating all unnecessary 
woodwork, mouldings and other devices upon which 
dust is liable to gather and disease germs to lodge. 

Sewerage and Drainage. — Reference has already 
been made to the necessity of waterproofing base- 
ments of school buildings to render them dry, but it 
is of even more importance that school buildings be 
so situated that the ground surrounding them may 
be readily drained, and that all sewage resulting 
from the building itself may be quickly and surely 
disposed of. Nearly all American cities at the pres- 
ent time have effective sewerage inspection, and 
definite codes governing the construction of sewers, 
so that elaborate detail on this subject seems un- 
necessary. For cities in which no regulations exist 
it is very easy to obtain copies of codes from neigh- 
boring cities from which the standards of good work 
may be obtained. For buildings in country districts 
in which no sewage facilities are provided, the ser-, 
vice of sanitary engineers should be obtained to de- 
sign sewage disposal plants to care for the sewage I 
from the buildings. In every school building, the| 
sewage and plumbing system should be made ab- 
solutely tight, rendering the escape of sewer gas in| 
the building impossible. In buildings set with al- 



68 



lowance for scant fall to the sewer, rendering the 
building liable to the danger of sewage backing up 
into the basement, proper valves or traps should be 
installed by means of which this may be rendered 
impossible. 

Plumbing Fixtures. — No part of the building so 
concerns its sanitary condition as the system of 
plumbing and plumbing fixtures which is installed 
therein. Probably no class of material entering into 
the construction of buildings has been brought to a 
higher standard in recent years than sanitary plumb- 
ing, and the best demonstration of this statement is 
an inspection of school buildings erected fifteen or 
twenty years ago in comparison with those being 
erected at the present time. 

Probably the first step in the present develop- 
ment, was the abolition of the range and dry closet 
systems, and the development of individual water 
flushing closets of sanitary design. The process of 
development has been a long one, and has probably 
not yet reached its utmost perfection, but several 
types of water closets have been developed which 
are highly satisfactory for school use. First among 
these may be mentioned the system of closets known 
as latrines because they are the least satisfactory of 
the types now in use. They are merely a modern de- 
velopment of the old style range closet, in which a 
number of bowls are arranged consecutively and con- 
nected together in such a manner that the entire 
range may be flushed by the flow of water which is 
caused to pass through them at short intervals. They 
may also be provided with positive means of ven- 
tilation, but care should be exercised that the ven- 



69 



®=*F 




Plan of Water Closet Stalls 



Details of Ventilated 11 I 

"WATER CL.05ET5; 5TALLS Primary Hi&h 5choou 

Utility Chamber Etc. ^Elevation or Stall Doors 



70 



tilation of closets has no connection whatever, with 
the system of ventilation controlling school rooms. 
The merits claimed for latrines are that they are so 
simple in construction that it is almost impossible 
for them to get out of order, and that the control of 
the flushing device rests entirely with the janitor, 
who adjusts the apparatus as desired. Properly con- 
structed latrines, connected with plumbing thor- 
oughly well done, and so designed as to be flushed 
automatically and powerfully, are quite satisfactory 
and are being used in a large number of present day 
schools. 

However, another and better type of closet is 
being used extensively, consisting of a porcelain 
bowl of either wash down or siphon jet pattern, so 
designed that pressure upon the seat of the fixture 
admits water to the tank placed on the wall in the 
rear of the closet. When the seat is released the 
water in the tank immediately rushes into the bowl 
thoroughly flushing and cleansing it and no more 
water is wasted than the operation requires. It is 
impossible to make use of the fixture without having 
it thoroughly flushed with water at each operation, 
and the mechanical part of the apparatus is so hid- 
den and protected from view that it is practically 
impossible for mischievous boys to cause any dam- 
age thereto. Various other forms of special closets 
for school buildings are on the market, but the one 
just described has more in its favor than any other 
type which has yet been developed. One closet 
should be provided in each school building for every 
twenty-five boys and for every fifteen girls. Near 
every closet or system of closets should be an ample 



71 



number of lavatories supplied with soap and towels, 
not only to provide pupils the opportunity of wash- 
ing but to teach them the advisability of so doing. 

Every water closet should be surrounded with a 
partition making a small compartment to ensure 
privacy, but many authorities contend that no doors 
should be provided at the front of such compart- 
ments in elementary and intermediate buildings. 
These partitions should be of black slate, soap stone 
or marble, and should be set up from the floor 10 or 
12 inches and should be of such design that they may 
be frequently and easily cleaned. Water closets and 
closet systems should always be so arranged that 
they may be well lighted and easily cleaned. Where*- 
ever possible, provision should be made for the posi- 
tive ventilation of every fixture, but most certainly 
of every toilet room. The closet bowls should not 
exceed 14 inches in height, especially in the lower 
grades. A utility chamber or working space of 24 
inches should be provided behind the backs of 
closets wherever possible, wherein all tanks, flush- 
ing and plumbing pipes of every description may 
be concealed. A door must be provided for the ad- 
mittance of inspection or repair men. In buildings 
having forced ventilation, these utility chambers 
serve well the purpose of vent chambers, through 
which the closet compartments may be ventilated. 
Individual compartments should be about 3 feet 6 
inches in depth, front to back, providing no doors 
are used, or 4 feet 6 inches, front to back, when 
doors are used, and they should be 30 inches or more 
in width. 

Next in importance to the closets comes the urinal 
fixtures. A urinal which is sanitary must be so de- 

72 



signed that it will (1) thoroughly flush frequently, 
(2) maintain a body of flowing water to keep the 
surface of the urinal constantly flushed without 
waste, and (3) be effectively ventilated. In build- 
ings where the saving of expense is an important 
item the best type of urinal now in use consists of a 
large exposed surface of black slate about 4 feet in 
height, the bottom of which is carried up from the 
floor about 4 inches and out from the wall about the 
same distance. The surface of the slate is kept con- 
stantly moist by a flow of water supplied from the 
top of the slab. Under the bottom of the slab is pro- 
vided a porcelain or cement trough into which the 
water is received, and the space back of the urinal 
slab serves as a vent chamber through which the air 
is drawn and forced to the outside air. Such urinals 
are illustrated in the Appendix. Recently a much 
superior but more expensive urinal has been per- 
fected consisting of solid white porcelain about 18 
inches wide and 4 feet high shaped like half of a 
cylinder standing on its end. These urinals are 
made all in one piece having all exposed surfaces 
glazed, and adjacent parts being fitted into each 
other with perfect cemented joints. The fixtures are 
built into the tile or cement floor of the toilet room 
and there are absolutely no open joints or crevices 
in which foulness may gather and produce annoying 
odors. Each urinal is provided with a flushing de- 
vice which distributes water evenly over the con- 
cave surface of the urinal, the flushing being ac- 
complished by an automatic tank which may be set 
to operate as often as desired. Each urinal is also 
supplied with a vent opening protected by a shield 
under the bottom of the urinal and thus perfect 



i 



73 



ventilation may be assured. One urinal should be 
allowed for every eighteen or twenty boys. 

Lavatories. — So many admirable patterns of 
lavatories are on the market that it is hardly neces- 
sary to say much concerning them except that the 
matter of individual use should always be consider- 
ed, and ample provision made whereby each pupil 
may have access to a separate lavatory when neces- 
sary. Many of the solid porcelain or cast iron por- 
celain enameled lavoratories are suitable for use in 
school buildings, and those types are preferred which 
do not have any direct connection with the walls, and 
every part whereof is readily accessible for cleaning. 
All lavatories should be provided with self closing 
cocks of substantial and durable pattern, and should 
have some device for controlling the waste, other 
than the old fashioned chain and stopper. Each 
lavatory should be provided with liquid soap and a 
device from which same may be obtained. Where- 
ever possible, hot water should be supplied to the 
lavatory as well as cold water. 

Sinks should be provided for the use of janitors, 
engineers, etc., which should be cast iron porcelain 
enameled, having roll rim backs in one piece with 
the sink. These sinks should always be supplied with 
both hot and cold water, where possible. In all cities 
where gas may be obtained, it is now possible to have 
an abundance of hot water, by means of instantan- 
eous heaters, which are both effective and economical. 

In buildings equipped with gymnasiums, or in 
which it is desirable to provide shower baths, they 
should be arranged in stalls consisting of a dressing 
compartment and a shower compartment separated 



74 



by duck curtains. The shower stalls and dressing 
stalls may be constructed of either black slate, soap 
stone or marble as the available funds may justify; 
and the shower stall should be not less than 3 feet 
by 3 feet, inside measure, the dressing stalls not less 
than 3 feet by 2 feet 6 inches, inside measure, and all 
stalls at least 6 feet 6 inches high above the finished 
floor. If the funds will admit the shower stall should 
have a marble or porcelain counter-sunk floor slab 
with combination drain and trap in the center there- 
of. A curbing of the same material as the stall par- 
titions 6 inches high should be provided between the 
shower and dressing compartment to keep the water 
from splashing the floor of the dressing room. The 
dressing room should be provided with a seat of the 
same material as the walls thereof for use in dress- 
ing. 

Stall partitions should be set in the finished floor 
inch. The wide variety of shower fittings manu- 
factured is fully illustrated in the catalogues of the 
various manufacturers from which selection may be 
made in accordance with the funds available. Es- 
sentials in every outfit are that the showers should be 
of plain type with shower head having removable 
:ace with ball and socket joint so the angle 
may be changed at the will of the bather. The 
shower should be provided with non-scalding valve, 
and should come from the wall or ceiling instead of 
from the floor. In the better class of work tem- 
perature regulating chambers are always provided 
and if desirable needle baths, sprays, etc., may be 
added to the equipment. 

Another sanitary feature deemed necessary in 
every modern school building is the drinking foun- 

75 



tain, the first and most important requirement of 
which is that it must be of some type which does not 
permit of the use of the old-style germ ladened cup. 
Owing to this requirement, leading manufacturers 
produce pedestal fountains with porcelain bowls 
and with some type of bubbling cup on top, by 
means of which a stream of running water, arising 
therefrom, may be used for drinking without the 
necessity of any contact between the lips and the 
fixture. The better patterns of fountains are pro- 
vided with self-closing faucets to avoid wasting 
water, and the fitting through which the water 
emerges is made of porcelain to prevent corrosion 
or discoloration which would result in case metal is 
used. 




FIG. 8 

Figure 8 illustrates an ideal arrangement for toilet 
rooms for either sex, and shows the vent through which 
the foul air of the toilet room, after being drawn through 
the fixtures themselves is exhausted to the open air, 
outside the building. 

Location of Sanitary Conveniences. — There is 

much discussion of the proper location of toilet 

76 



rooms or sanitaries in school buildings. Some 
authorities assert that toilet rooms for children 
should never be placed in the basement and argue 
in favor of detached pavilions. Undoubtedly, it is 
best in the large and more expensive types of build- 
ings to provide ample toilet conveniences on each 
floor, located, wherever possible, in well ventilated 
wings or separate portions of the building, — ease of 
access and complete isolation being the two prin- 
cipal requirements regarding their location. In any 
case every school building, should be provided with 
at least one toilet room on each floor for the use of 
teachers, and this may, without disadvantage, be 
arranged in connection with the toilet rooms for 
pupils. There can be no objection to the placing of 
toilet equipments in basements providing the base- 
ments are dry, well lighted, equipped with proper 
facilities for water supply and sewerage, and also 
provided there is a good positive system of ventila- 
tion of the compartments used for the toilet equip- 
ment. 

The floors of toilet rooms must always be of non- 
absorbent materials, and if constructed of cement 
the cement must be absolutely water-proof as else- 
where stated. Toilet room floors of unglazed or 
semi-glazed tiles, or of artificial plastic cement, make 
ideal materials for the purpose, especially because 
cove mouldings may be used at the walls instead of 
base mouldings, thus rendering it possible to keep 
the rooms absolutely clean. Wherever the supply of 
funds will admit, toilet rooms should be wainscoted 
with glazed tile or marble. 



77 



Vacuum Cleaning. — One of the sanitary devices 
which has now been brought to a high degree of ex- 
cellence is a device whereby buildings may be 
cleaned by means of vacuum equipment. Many 
different systems of vacuum cleaning are on the mar- 
ket, some of which are absolutely dependable and 
the cost of installing such plants is not relatively 
very high, especially compared with the positive and 
excellent results obtained therefrom. By means of 
such devices not only floors but walls, ceilings and 
any other portions of rooms desired may be thor- 
oughly cleaned. Estimates of the cost of installing 
such apparatus, full directions concerning their 
use, and the results to be secured from them are 
readily obtainable from any of the manufacturers 
of such apparatus. 



78 



FIRE PROOF AND PANIC PROOF SCHOOL 
BUILDINGS. 

Until very recent years the impression has pre- 
vailed that, owing to its excessive cost over ordin- 
ary construction, no method of fireproofing could 
be employed in any school building except the 
largest and most expensive ones, because the voting 
public would consider such expenditure needless ex- 
travagance. This impression has been somewhat 
strengthened by the ever increasing cost of struc- 
tural steel, and the difficulty of obtaining it without 
weeks or months of annoying delay, which also 
added to the expense and difficulty of fireproof con- 
struction. 

Recently these conditions have become decidedly 
modified owing to three potent influences; (1) one 
or two frightful school calamities have awakened 
the public conscience to the conviction that it is 
almost criminal parsimony, instead of wise economy, 
to spare the added expense necessary to render 
school buildings fireproof and panic proof. (2) 
The alarming scarcity of lumber has not only great- 
ly increased the cost of timber for construction pur- 
poses, but the quality of timber now procurable in 
many parts of the country is so inferior, and of such 
short lengths, that various expedients of design 
have become necessary in order to render such tim- 
ber useable at all. These expedients have seriously 
added to the cost of non-fireproof construction until 

79 



there is but a narrow, and ever narrowing, margin 
between the ordinary type and the fireproof type of 
buildings. When to this factor is added the cost of 
fire escapes and other such devices, required in 
many of the states by law, it is found that there is 
but little difference between the ultimate cost of 
the non-fireproof building and that of the so-called 
fireproof structure. (3) Most potent of all, how- 
ever, must be mentioned the almost marvelous 
growth of reinforced concrete construction, by the 
use of which, intelligently handled, school buildings 
may be made fireproof at practically the same cost 
as the ordinary combustible type of building; pro- 
viding the latter is sufficiently complete to comply 
with the ordinary safeguards for life and health 
which are now demanded by the laws in the most 
progressive states. In addition to the moderate cost 
of reinforced concrete work, its increasing popu- 
larity is doubtless due to the fact that the in- 
gredients entering into its construction may be 
found in almost every part of the country. Such 
steel as is necessary to reinforce the concrete may 
be made of the simplest patterns, everywhere pro- 
curable on short notice, and of such character that 
no steel company or combination can easily work 
schemes for putting unreasonable prices upon them. 
Generally speaking, therefore, no progressive board i 
of education should be willing to consider any| 
school building proposition which precludes the pos- 
sibility of fireproof construction. 

One has only to think, for an instant, of the 160| 
innocent children who were roasted to death in th< 
frightful holacaust, at Collinwood, Ohio, in 1907 ; oJ 

80 



the homes thus darkened by the angel of death, and 
the desperate efforts of those in authority, in such 
cases, to find some excuse on which their blasted 
reputations can be hung, to become convinced that 
it is little short of criminal to participate in the 
erection of school buildings which are not practi- 
cally fireproof and panic-proof. 

Definitions. — The term fireproof, while well 
understood by competent architects, is still but a 
hazy term in the minds of many people. It is safe 
to say that there are few, if any, buildings which 
are absolutely fireproof, — i. e., which could not be 
destroyed by any fire, however great, from without 
or within. But it is a safe statement that there are 
very many buildings in the country fireproof in the 
sense that they could not be utterly destroyed by 
any fire which can ever assail them, and in which 
the salvage in case of fire would amount to 70 or 80 
per cent. Practically all of these buildings are in- 
destructible by fire from within themselves, and 
could only be seriously damaged by fires of in- 
describable fierceness attacking them from the out- 
side. In Chicago, the term fireproof construction 
applies to all buildings in which the parts thereof 
carrying weights or resistance, including all exterior 
and interior walls and partitions, all stairways, ele- 
vator enclosures, etc., are made entirely of incombust- 
ible materials; and in which all metallic structural 
members are protected from fire by incombustible 
materials. ' ' The materials which shall be considered 
as fireproof covering or protection are, (1) burned 
brick, (2) burned wall tiles, (3) approved cement 
concrete, (4) burned terra cotta, and (5) approved 

81 



cinder concrete." The definition of fireproof con- 
struction in the New York building code is in effect 
similar to that stated from the Chicago code ; but is 
more explicit, especially with reference to the con- 
struction of high buildings. From the foregoing 
definitions it will be readily seen that school build- 
ings are easily made of fireproof construction, and 
it may be done without the excessive expense which 
is contingent upon the construction of high office 
buildings, etc. 

Application to School Buildings. — All walls of a 
school building, except mere dividing partitions, 
should be of solid brick masonry, particularly those 
walls which enclose or surround stairways. Divid- 
ing partitions, where necessary, may be constructed 
of hard burned terra cotta tile plastered with ce- 
ment plaster. All floors should be constructed of 
either hollow terra cotta tile or entirely of rein- 
forced concrete, preferably the latter. Stairways 
should be constructed of either iron and steel, or of 
reinforced concrete, and should be isolated in stair- 
way halls and entirely surrounded with masonry or 
non-combustible materials. The stairway leading 
to basement should be kept strictly separate from 
stairways leading to upper portions of the building. 
Steep roofs, to be finished with tile or slate, should 
be constructed on steel trusses, the roof surface be- 
ing formed of slabs of concrete or terra cotta tile 
and covered with ornamental tile or slate on the out- 1 
side. Flat roofs may be of either tile or reinforced | 
concrete and should be covered with asbestos roof- 
ing, waterproof cement or waterproof tiles laid in| 
cement. 

82 



Various preparations are on the market, of a 
fireproofing nature, for finishing floors and this may 
be used in place of wood flooring; but buildings 
which are fireproofed as above outlined, may be con- 
sidered well within every requirement of safety for 
school building purposes if the floors, doors and 
windows are made of wood. However, where suf- 
ficient funds are available, even the doors, windows 
and trimmings may be procured of non-combustible 
materials, if desired. 

Precautionary and Extinguishing Appliances. — 

"Where school buildings are exposed to adjacent 
structures the utmost care should be observed in 
rendering the exposed portions of the school build- 
ing absolutely fire resisting, with reference to the 
outside danger; which may be done by means of 
metallic frames and sash in windows and the use 
of wire glass. In case of an exposure of unusual 
risk and danger, a sprinkler system could be in- 
stalled on the outside of the building so arranged 
as to provide a sheet of water pouring down over 
the building in case fire reaching a certain tem- 
perature should ever come against it. Sprinkler 
systems may also be installed in any portions of 
school buildings in which it is considered that an 
unusual danger of fire may arise, such as labora- 
tories, manual training rooms, engine and boiler 
rooms; the above rooms containing combustible 
material. 

Every school building whether of fireproof or 
ordinary construction should be provided with 
stand pipes connected with the city water system, or 



83 



in case this source of supply is of questionable 
value, with a pressure tank located in the attic and 
kept constantly supplied with a large volume of 
water under pressure. Outlets from the standpipes 
should be provided on each floor and supplied with 
a liberal quantity of non-rotting hose equipped with 
nozzles, ready for instant use. In addition, fire ex- 
tinguishers should be supplied in all school build- 
ings, particularly in locations exposed to com- 
bustible materials as above named. The use of such 
devices are advisable even in buildings of fireproof 
construction, and their absence in combustible 
buildings is absolutely inexcusable. 

Panic Proofing. 

It is a remarkable fact that even in buildings 
which are generally known as fireproof structures, 
it is still possible for accidents to occur which may 
give rise to frightful panics on the part of those 
occupying the buildings. This is, perhaps, especial- 
ly noticeable in school buildings where little children 
are congregated in large numbers and easily fright- 
ened by any unusual noise, the smell of smoke, or an 
alarm of any sort indicating danger. The instinct 
for self-preservation often drives even adults to 
extremes, which, after the passing of the excitement, 
seem to the actors themselves almost idiotic; but 
during the frenzy created by the alarm, reason is 
cast aside and the sedate human being actually be- 
comes, for a time, an ungovernable maniac. For this 
reason, much study should be devoted to the ar- 
rangement of school buildings so that the occur- 1 
rences of panics will be rendered practically impos-, 
sible. 

84 



It is not necessary here to speak of the ad- 
ministrative duties of teachers in keeping pupils 
constantly drilled, in anticipation of fire or panic, 
regardless of the character of the building oc- 
cupied by them, as it is now universal practice, made 
necessary by law in many of the states, for teachers 
to require constant practice in this regard. Bef- 
erence must be made, however, to those features of 
arrangement and construction in the school build- 
ing which, (1) render the creation of undue alarms 
practically impossible and (2) provide such facili- 
ties that even where the alarm does occur an escape 
to safety may be easily and quickly made. Some 
of these features have been touched upon in other 
portions of this work, but may be briefly reviewed 
here. 

Every building should contain at least two fire- 
proof stairways surrounded by fireproof masonry 
walls, not connected with each other in any par- 
ticular, and if possible placed upon opposite sides of 
the building. Under no circumstances, should a 
school building be designed with a central hall into 
which all stairways open, as a fire or panic in such 
a hall would instantly and effectively block all 
means of egress from the building. There should be 
no connection, in any case, between the stairways 
leading to the upper portions of the building, and 
the stairways leading down to the basement used 
as such, — i. e., containing heating apparatus, etc. 
Every building should contain a liberal number of 
stairways and these should be of ample capacity. 
Buildings which are not of fireproof construction 
should contain emergency stairways, so that each 

85 



emergency stairway will serve not more than two 
school rooms in the second story. Every school 
building should be constructed so as to render the 
use of outside fire escapes unnecessary, as the latter 
are not only unsightly and expensive, but almost as 
dangerous as some of the features within a com- 
bustible building itself. School rooms in first story 
in combustible buildings should be provided with a 
doorway leading direct to the ground in addition 
to the usual exits by means of corridors, etc. Base- 
ment rooms should have an area space outside the 
foundation walls, and exits provided into the areas 
from every basement room to be used by pupils so 
that instant egress may be had therefrom to the out- 
side in case of fire or alarm. 

Design of Stairways, Entrances, Etc. — Every 
door in school buildings should open outward, 
whether leading from the school room to the cor- 
ridor, the corridor to the vestibule or the vestibule 
outside. No top and bottom bolts should be per- 
mitted on doors, and no doors within combustible 
buildings should be provided with key locks, except 
main entrance door, library, book closets and boiler 
room doors. 

The proportion of stairways is covered elsewhere 
in this work, but it may be added here that no stair- 
way should have more than one landing and all 
landings should be of ample capacity. The outside 
wall of landings should be made octagonal or cir- 
cular construction, reducing the landing space to 
approximately a half circle approaching in capacity 
that of the stairways, and in case the stairways are 

86 



of double width, as elsewhere described, the rail- 
ings forming the division should be carried on a cir- 
cle arc clear around the landing. The balustrade 
separating the upper from the lower flight of stairs 
should be made high, absolutely rigid and with no 
open space whatever between the top rail of same 
and the steps, this space being filled either with re- 
inforced concrete, metal screen or balustrade or 
some other similar device rendering it absolutely 
impossible for pupils either willfully, or by pressure 
during a panic, to fall from one flight of stairs to the 
one below. A solid wall separating the two flights 
is the best design of all, but the same may be con- 
structed of a steel frame fitted with wire glass, if 
desired, and this form of design is seen in many oC 
the higher grade schools of the present day. 

General Provisions. — In general, the danger of 
panics in buildings is made remote in proportion to 
the simplicity and directness of the plan. The more, 
liberal, straight and thoroughly lighted the cor- 
ridors are, the less danger there will be of panic. 
Secondary corridors should be avoided, if possible, 
but in any case must be liberal in size, well lighted 
and not only have access to principal corridors, but 
if possible, to emergency stairways at the end of 
secondary corridors. All emergency exits and, 
other means of egress from the building which are 
not prominent and obvious at a glance should be 
prominently marked "EXIT", and in case the build- 
ings are used at night, lights should be provided in 
connection with these exits so that the letters will 
appear in red. Such exit doors not only should open 
outward, but be so fastened that it will always be 

87 



possible to open them from the inside without diffi- 
culty. There should be absolutely no "dead ends", 
dark nooks or useless spaces in which frightened 
children could become jammed without easy escape. 
Finally when every possible precaution has been 
made, the children should constantly be impressed 
with the fact that no danger can ever come from 
the building which they need to fear. 



88 



HEATING OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS. 

Practically all works relating to school building 
treat the subjects of heating and ventilating con- 
jointly as one subject. With reference to some 
systems this is fitting, because in them the heating 
and ventilating is performed at one operation, the 
heated air being used also for ventilating; but per- 
haps a more intelligent understanding of the subject 
may be obtained if the two processes are first con- 
sidered separately and afterwards with reference 
to their relation to each other. 

Direct Heating. 

All systems of heating may be grouped under 
two general heads, (1) direct heating systems in 
which the heat radiating apparatus is located in the 
room being warmed, such as stoves, steam and hot 
water radiators, and (2) indirect heating in which 
the heat radiating apparatus is not located im- 
mediately in the room to be warmed, but in the 
basement or some other portion of the building dis- 
tant from the room or rooms being warmed. There 
are buildings in which both the direct and indirect 
are used in combination, which systems are discuss- 
ed fully in the chapter on ventilation. 

One principle should be borne in mind constant- 
ly, — that ventilation on any positive or sanitary 
basis is an utter impossibility in rooms warmed by 
the direct system; heating is possible but no prac- 
tical ventilation. It is also well to remember that 



89 



the process of heating a room is a three-fold opera- 
tion; (1) heating the air within the room, (2) heat- 
ing the walls, floor and ceiling of the room, and (3) 





1 


_u ^ 


u 



Fig. 1 





Fig. 2 



Evolution Of 
h eating Systems 

Fis.i Direct Heating,, No 
Ventilation 

Tig. 2. Indirect Heating 

" No Ventilation 



heating the air which may find its way into the room 
through crevices, around windows, doors, etc., to 
replace air which has leaked out in the same or any 
other manner. 

Heating Devices: Direct System. — The heating 
apparatus of the earliest schools undoubtedly con- 
sisted of enormous open grates or fire places which 
were, without question, bright and cheerful but no1 
suited to school requirements. The open fire-plac< 
superheats those nearest the fire and leaves col< 
those at a distance. It is also expensive, as at leasj 
50 per cent of the heat producing power of the fuel 
is lost through the open chimney. Open fire place] 



90 



may produce slight ventilation by reason of the 

draught created by the hot air passing up the chim- 
ney, but such ventilation is limited exactly to the 
amount of air which can leak into the room around 
doors, windows, etc., and such leakage rather con- 
tributes to the discomfort of the occupants of the 
room, than to ensure a perfect ventilating system. 
Doubtless, the next step in the development of 
direct heating apparatus, was the modern iron stove 
which is still used, particularly in rural districts, 
for heating school rooms. Any sort of stove is but 
little better than the open fire place, possessing all 
of its defects and no additional merit except that of 
economy. The stove produces even less ventilation 
and in fact possesses but one reliable characteristic, 
-the ability to produce a great deal of heat at one 
point in the room quickly, and with a limited quan- 
tity of fuel. "With the use of steam for heating 
buildings, the annoying and unsightly radiator came 
into use, and in many cases soon replaced the old- 
fashioned fire place and stove; but steam radiators 
for direct heating of school rooms are little better 
than fire places or stoves, and are incapable of pro- 
ducing any ventilation whatever. They are chiefly 
admirable as dust catchers. Owing to the excessive 
temperature and rather depressing effect of steam 
heat, hot water is often substituted therefor, but 
aside from the different character of heat furnished 
by the two systems and the very slight economy re- 
sulting from the use of hot water, the two systems 
are identical in principle and results. 

Many schemes have been devised for modifying 
and elaborating the apparatus for direct heating, 

91 



above described, and for combining so called sys- 
tems of ventilation therewith, but with very indif- 
ferent success. Even though flues are provided for 
the outflow of heated air from the rooms they do 
not ventilate, except in the imagination of the de- 
signer. 



Indirect Heating. 

Indirect heating is any system in which the heat 
radiating surfaces are located outside of the room to 
be heated. Indirect systems may consist of hot air 
furnaces, or a " Battery' ' of steam or hot water coils 
located at some central point or points in the build- 
ing, the apparatus being so connected with flues 
and piping that the air which is heated in the ap- 
paratus is conducted, in the flues, to the rooms to be 
heated. Flues or outlets are then provided in each 
of the rooms for the escape of the air in the room 
outdoors. Where no fan or blower is used, such a 
system is commonly designated as a gravity system, 
this phraseology being based on the theory that the 
heated air entering the room is rarified, by means of 
the heat, sufficiently to cause it to rise in the outlet 
flues and escape outdoors, thus creating space in the 
school room which will be immediately filled by 
other heated air and the operation thus kept up in- 
definitely; a theory, however, far from reliable 01 
trustworthy. Where the operation is controlled by 
means of fans or blowers the result may be positive 
and sure, but this phase of the subject is treate( 
under the head of ventilation. 



92 



In the systems of direct heating described it is 
assumed that the heating apparatus simply warms, 
and keeps warmed, the air in the school room, no 
provision being made for the admission of fresh air 
or the egress of vitiated air except by leakage as 
stated. Indirect heating, however, involves some 
movement or change in the air of the rooms being 
heated, and a system of flues to provide for same; 
for if no means be provided whereby the air first in 
the rooms may find its way out, it is manifestly im- 
possible to introduce fresh heated air from the base- 
ment, or other central point, into the rooms. In- 
direct heating, therefore, has the advantage over 
direct heating that it necessarily involves more or 
less positive ventilation. 



TRE5H Air- 




Heated Air 



)pen Register. 
-Radiator. 



xample or Direct-Indirect Meating 



Direct Indirect Heating. — A system of heating 
once much in vogue, but now obsolete and little 
used, was the direct-indirect system, which can be 
used only in connection with steam or hot water. 
This system consisted of the placing of radiators 



93 



adjacent to windows, or other openings, leading 
direct outdoors, the theory being that the heat in the 
radiator would induce currents of fresh air to pass 
from out doors over the radiator into the rooms to 
be heated. Of course, no air whatever would enter 
the rooms in such manner unless flues were also pro- 
vided whereby air in the rooms might find its way 
through these vents outdoors, and even in such 
case, ventilation by this system is exceedingly un- 
certain. Systems of this sort give much annoyance 
through freezing of the steam pipes exposed to the 
cold air and it is impossible to construct such a 
system so as to supply an ample and positive volume^ 
of fresh air for ventilation. 



94 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF VENTILATION. 

Ventilation in reality is a branch of sanitary- 
science, and although many believe the science still 
to be in its infancy, vast progress has been attained 
in its development and perfection within very re- 
cent years. 

Ventilation, as contemplated by this work, refers 
to the continuous renewal of the air within build- 
ings intended for school purposes. It will have no 
reference to accidental or imperfect ventilation, such 
as may be obtained through windows, doors or other 
such means, but only to such positive ventilation as 
may be brought about only by means of a definite 
supply of fresh air forced into the rooms at one or 
more places by means of pressure from a blower or 
otherwise, and the consequent displacement of the 
foul air in the room by means of the same pressure, 
•in short, will refer to a gradual, complete and con- 
tinuous changing of the air from foul to fresh so> 
that the air breathed by the occupants of the rooms 
will be at all times as near perfectly pure as pos- 
sible. No such result can be attained unless the 
volume of fresh air supplied is based on the number 
of occupants, and length of periods during which the 
rooms are occupied, and unless the supply of fresh 
air, and the removal of foul air, is accomplished re- 
gardless of the varying internal and external tem- 
peratures, as well as the velocity and direction of 
the air outside of the building. 

A few general principles, now well established, 

95 



regarding the character and motion of air in a room 
should be kept in mind to insure an intelligent grasp 
of the subject. 

(1) The air in a room must be conceived of as a 
definite medium, just as one thinks of the water in a 
bucket which is filled to the brim with that liquid. 
As it is impossible to put more water into the bucket 
without forcing out of the bucket some of the water 
which is already therein, so is it impossible to force 
air into a room without displacing some of the air 
already within the room. Further, the volume of air 
which can be delivered into any room is always 
equal to the quantity of air displaced therefrom, if 
the pressure remains the same. 

(2) The air of nature is a mechanical mixture of 
nitrogen and oxygen, with a little carbonic acid, a 
form of oxygen called ozone and more or less vapor 
of water. The amount of carbonic acid in the open 
air of nature is from 4 to 6 parts in 10,000 by 
volume. 

In places where ventilation is not perfect, air 
contains also impurities such as sulphuretted hydro- 
gen, sulphuric, nitric and other acids and often 
more or less solid matter like particles of dust. Air 
in rooms occupied by human beings becomes rapidly 
contaminated by the products of respiration from 
the human beings, the pores of the skin, etc. Ai.» 
also contains bacteria or disease germs; and many 
authorities believe that the dust particles in air are 
largely responsible for the distribution or propaga- 
tion of the bacteria of various diseases. 

(3) "While the ends to be sought in ventilating 
are threefold (1) hygienic, (2) economic and (3) 

96 



mechanical, both heating and ventilating are most 
important for hygienic reasons. Pure air is as im- 
portant to the human body as food and water. A 
candle will not burn in air impoverished of oxygen. 
So also, breathing impure air dulls the fires of the 
body and thus clouds the intellect. The more the 
bodily vitality is lowered, the greater is the danger 
of contracting both temporary and permanent 
disease. Real vital energy must not be expected in 
abnormal atmospheric conditions. 

If pure air is entirely absent, death is immediate. 
One cubic foot per minute will barely support life,. 
Five or even ten cubic feet per minute admit of but 
low vitality; thirty cubic feet per minute will en- 
sure vigor and health, but additional fresh air up to 
the point where noticeable draught begins, is the 
ideal condition. 

(4) The air in a room is always in motion owing 
to the fact that certain portions of the room, such 
as glass, may be colder or hotter than other por- 
tions, such as walls, and this inequality of tem- 
perature is certain to result in air motion by the 
force of gravity, cold air falling because of its 
density and heated air rising because of its rarity. 

(5) Carbonic acid gas expelled from the human 
lungs by respiration, or emitted through the pores 
of the skin, is 50 per cent heavier than pure air and 
therefore falls toward the floor. 

(6) The air in nature is purified by the action of 
winds, rain, lightning, etc., but it is impossible to 
purify the air inside of a building except by re- 
moving and replacing it with fresh air brought from 
out doors ; therefore any so called system of veutiia- 

97 



tion which does not positively produce this result is 
not in reality a system of ventilation at all. 

(7) Positive ventilation can be secured only 
where provision is made for (1) some source of 
power for forcibly moving the air, (2) flues and in- 
lets for conducting the fresh air into the rooms, (3) 
outlets and flues for conveying the exhausted air 
again to the out doors. 

(8) The quantity of fresh air necessary to main- 
tain a fixed standard of purity may easily be de- 
termined, using the carbonic acid as the index. 
Each adult averages 20 cubic inches of air at each, 
breath, and about 20 respirations each minute. 
Knowing the amount of carbonic acid in pure air, 
and in air expelled from the human lungs, and 
knowing by experiment that discomfort if not harm 
attends the breathing of air containing more than 
8 parts in 10,000 of carbonic acid, it is easy to figure 
the requirements for any standard. This subject is 
fully elaborated in Prof. R. C. Carpenter's excellent 
work on Heating and Ventilating Buildings. 

In Massachusetts the state law requires that the 
ventilating apparatus of all school buildings shall 
supply at least 30 cubic feet of fresh air per minute 
or 1800 cubic feet per hour for each pupil, upon 
which basis the air in a standard school room con- 
taining 40 pupils would have to be wholly changed 
once in every 8 minutes. This has practically be- 
come the standard the country over. 

Inlets, Outlets and Flues. — The utmost care must 
be observed in designing inlets, outlets and flues for 
ventilation. It is an easy matter to bring a definite 
volume of air into a given space in a given time, but| 

98 



it is often exceedingly difficult to accomplish this 
result reaching all parts of the room with the fresh, 
pure air, but avoiding the formation of air currents, 
draughts and eddies. Te secure satisfactory re- 
sults the air should be uniformly distributed, should 
be warmed enough to prevent a feeling of chilliness 
on the part of individuals in the room, and should 
proceed at a speed which will not give the sensa- 
tion of a draught. Air entering a school room 
should not have an initial velocity in excess of 15 
feet per second at the opening in the flue, or in ex- 
cess of 6 feet per second in the school room. 

The best results are obtained when the air inlets 
are located at a considerable height above the floor 
and the outlets are located at the floor on the same 
side of the room as the inlet. The advantages of 
this arrangement are that heated air tends to rise 
and spread uniformly just under the ceiling, after 
which it settles lower and lower in the room, grad- 
ually displacing the cool and foul air there-in and 
the room is thus soon filled with fresh warm pure 
air while the vitiated air passes out through the 
vent shafts under the impelling force of the fresh 
air which has been forced into the room. Mr. War- 
ren E. Briggs, of Bridgeport, Conn., published in 
the third annual report of the Connecticut State 
Board of Health, 1879, the results of a series of ex- 
periments made by him to determine the most ad- 
vantageous location of inlet and outlet flues for 

entilation purposes. The results of these experi- 

ents were given in the work published by Mr. 

riggs in 1899, on the American School Building. 

hese experiments were conducted with a model 

99 



having about one-sixth the capacity of an ordinary^ 
school room and the movements of the air were 
made visible by mingling smoke therewith whereby 
all changes undergone in the air were made visible. 





Worst Possible Arrangement 



.Little Better. 





Circulation too high 



Circulation One Sided 





Tair Circulation Ideal method 

FIG. *2. 

These experiments are illustrated in figure (12), 
It is perhaps well to add that the practice of thel 
best ventilating engineers and the experienced] 
of the years which have elapsed since these ex-l 
periments by Mr. Briggs demonstrate the correct™ 
ness and reliability of his conclusions. 



100 



SYSTEMS OF VENTILATION. 

Until very recent years, ventilation was regarded 
more as a luxury than a necessity. Although the 
discomforts of poorly ventilated rooms have al- 
ways been known and deprecated, the apparent 
necessity of complex and expensive methods for 
correcting the difficulty has undoubtedly retarded 
the advancement in this department of building 
economy. But, as a result of the recent advance in 
hygienic science and experiment, it is now well 
known that the vitiated atmosphere of crowded 
rooms is positively and undeniably injurious, often 
leading to the propagation of various dangerous 
diseases, and that continued exposure to it is rea- 
sonably certain to be followed by serious conse- 
quences. A vitiated atmosphere lowers the vitality 
and therefore decreases the physical and mental 
working power of the individual and at the same 
time increases his susceptibility to disease. It is of 
the utmost importance that school buildings should 
be ventilated according to the most advanced prin- 
ciples, and every school board should insist upon 
expert service in this department of building 
economy whether it has been afforded elsewhere or 
not. The practice, followed by many boards, of per- 
mitting various manufacturers to submit their own 
layouts is a very unwise practice, being due no 
doubt to the fact that many architects not skilled in 
the designing of ventilating apparatus are glad to 
have manufacturers assist them in this manner. 

101 



This procedure not only defeats all true com- 
petition, but has the additional defect of making 
the boards of education act in the capacity of judges 
of the various ventilating schemes submitted, which 
they are utterly incompetent to do, and many fail- 
ures can be explained by the following out of this 
program. If any portion of a school building is 
worthy the attention of an expert surely this is it. 

Ventilation by Natural Methods. — On the basis 
of least expense, natural agencies, such as air supply 
through doors and windows, were long depended 
upon, but it is apparent that such ventilation is not 
a "system" at all and is both spasmodic and dis- 
agreeable, if not dangerous because of draught. 

Ventilation by Gravity. — The first step away 
from ventilation by natural methods consisted in 
supplying buildings with flues either for the in- 
troduction of fresh air, the withdrawal of vitiated 
air, or both ; but where no method was employed for 
forcing fresh air in through the former, or drawing 
the foul air out through the latter, such systems of 
flues were even less dependable than the natural pro- 
cesses above referred to. This led to a further step 
in advance known as the Gravity System and con- 
sisting of some means of encouraging or inducing a 
movement of the air in the rooms into the foul air 
flues. One such plan involves the use of two flues 
for each room, one leading into the room from a fur- 
nace, or battery of furnaces, located in the basement, 
and the other leading from the room to a point above 
the roof of the building. It is the theory of this 
system that when the air used for heating the rooms 
leaves the furnaces, it both rises and expands in 

102 



volume, because of its heat and lighter specific 
gravity, and thus enters the room with a certain 
velocity due to these causes. This velocity is sup- 
posed to be sufficient to displace an equal volume of 



Went Stack 



Smoke Stack. 




Grayjty System 
Of Mot Air Indirect Heating 
Amd Ventilating Combined. 

This illustration shows diagramatically the principle 
of a gravity system of heating and ventilation, showing the 
path of outside cold air as it passes over the furnace, up 
into the school room and outdoors again through the vent 
stack. The motion of the air is produced by the heat of 
the furnace. 



the air already in the room and force it up the vent 
flue and thus out doors. This is a beautiful theory 
and such systems sometimes do operate with a fair 
degree of satisfaction when the wind and weather 



103 



conditions are favorable, but if the winds or weather 
are unfavorable, the system is just as certain to 
prove ineffectual and little better than no system of 
ventilation whatever. 

A final step in the development of the gravity 
system consists in placing gas jets, steam coils, iron 
smoke stacks, etc., in the exhaust flues, with the idea 
that the heat thus generated will cause a positive 
draught and thus force foul air up the exhaust flue 
and thus out doors, but the same objections may be 
urged to this phase of the gravity system, which is 
sometimes called ventilation by aspiration, as have 1 
been urged against the simple gravity system, 
differing only in degree. 

Forced or Mechanical Ventilation. — The inevitable 
result of the unsatisfactory results obtained from all 
methods of ventilation previously referred to, has 
been the general conclusion of all authorities that 
there is no system of ventilation, of any sort, which 
is positive, uniform or otherwise dependable except 
the method of supplying air for ventilation by force 
from a blower or fan ; and that if the air is wanted 
in a particular place, at a particular time, and in cer- 
tain definite quantities and velocities, it must be 
forced to go there under the necessary conditions i v 
spite of winds, weather and all other such con- 
ditions. Further, actual experience is demonstrat- 
ing that no positive system of ventilation is so in- 
expensive — -results considered — as the fan system, ir 
buildings of eight rooms or more. 

Ventilation and Heating Combined. — Although 
the subject of heating has been separately treated 
in the present work, experience has demonstrated 

104 



that in our climate it is never wise to operate the 
system of ventilation entirely by itself, as the air 
used for ventilation should at least be warmed to 
the temperature of the room into which it is intro- 
duced. In some systems the heating and ventila- 
tion is performed at one operation, the ventilating 
air being first forced through the heating furnaces 
or coils thus raising it to a high temperature, in 
which condition it is introduced into the school 
room under pressure from the fan or blower. After 
passing through the room it is forced out through 
the ventilating stacks, but not until it has performed 
the two operations at once. The latter system while 
in more common use is not as good practice as the 
systems in which the heating and ventilating are 
more nearly independent of each other for the fol- 
lowing reasons : 

1. In order that the ventilating air shall not 
lose so much heat in its passage through the school 
rooms as to cause an unpleasant and cooling feeling 
upon the occupants of the room, it is necessary to 
overheat the air at the furnaces, thus cooking or 
burning its dust and depriving the air of the humid^ 
ity which it must have for the best results. 

2. Owing to the absence of this humidity the 
mucous membranes of the persons occupying the 
room become affected and are more liable to colds 
and other irritating affections. 

3. Such dry air quickly affects the vitality and 
comfort, if not the health of the pupils occupying 
the rooms, and it is very frequently found necessary 
to resort to the opening of windows or transoms to 
secure fresh air in its natural condition of humidity 

105 



because of the absence of same in the ventilating air 
furnished to the room, thus counteracting and nulli- 
fying the mechanical ventilation. 

Systems of Forced Ventilation. — There are two 
systems of forced ventilation, (1) the Exhaust sys- 
tem, and (2) the Plenum or pressure system. The 
exhaust system consists in using a fan to forcibly 
withdraw the air from rooms. This system is 
now little used except for ventilating toilet rooms, 
chemical and other laboratories, etc. In this system 
a partial vacuum is created within the apartment 
and, as all air currents and leaks are thus inward, 
there is nothing to govern the quality or velocity of 
the air, and it is difficult to provide proper means of 
warming it. In the case of toilet rooms, laboratories, 
etc., the system is very desirable, and in many build- 
ings imperative. Further, the tendency of the air in 
corridors and adjoining rooms to leak into the toilet 
rooms, etc., because of the vacuum above described, 
is a positive merit rather than a defect in this case 
because it counteracts all tendency of foul smelling 
air to pass from these apartments into other portions 
of the building. 

By the Plenum system, fresh pure air may be 
forced into the rooms at any desired degree of tem- 
perature or velocity, at any desired degree of 
humidity, and under such conditions as may be pos- 
itively controlled at all times ; and all leakage is out- 
ward through windows, etc., thus preventing the 
drawing of polluted air into the room from any 
source whatever. Moreover, all air which is forced 
into the room by the ' Plenum or pressure system,, 
and owing to that pressure, forces out of the room| 

106 



an equal volume of the vitiated air, which is already 
in the room, and does so by positive measurable pro- 
cesses which remove all doubt as to the actual re- 
sults accomplished. When it is remembered that the 
physical energy of the body is absolutely dependent 
upon a constant and positive supply of fresh pure 
air, as surely as the energy of the engine is the re-, 
suit of the fires under the boilers, the vast importance 
of this result is easily realized. 

Heating and Ventilating Air. — Air used for ven- 
tilation is always heated in cold weather before its 
introduction into school rooms, and as already ex- 
plained, may be sufficiently heated so that the heat- 
ing and ventilating may be performed at one opera- 
tion. In buildings where steam or hot water is used 
for heating, the air for ventilation is frequently 
heated to only 70 degrees by means of indirect coils 
located in the basement, the idea being that the 
radiators in the rooms are to provide the heat neces- 
sary for the rooms, and the indirect coils in the base- 
ment are for the purpose only of tempering the ven- 
tilating air so that it may enter the rooms at the 
same temperature as the air which is already in the 
rooms. This latter plan is considered far the best 
system of heating and ventilating now in common 
use and is much to be preferred over any system in 
which the heating and ventilating is done at one 
operation. 

Quantity of Ventilating Air. — Professor Wood- 
bridge says that ' ' Only two considerations should be 
allowed to limit the quantity of air supply: Air 
draughts and bank drafts." In other words, ven- 
tilating air should be supplied in maximum quan- 

107 



tities up to the point where danger arises from colds 
due to draught, providing the funds in hand will 
admit of such liberal supply. The length of time 
rooms are actually occupied continuously has much 
to do with the quantity of ventilating air which 
should properly be used in the rooms. Under the 
Massachusetts law, as first passed, it was attempted 
to require 50 cubic feet of air per capita per minute 
in public schools, but as it was found impracticable 
to obtain such a high standard, especially within 
reasonable financial limits, the standard was drop- 
ped to 30 cubic feet per minute which is now gen- 
erally adopted in school work throughout the coun- 
try as the minimum volume to be provided in any 
system of ventilation worthy of the name. As more 
and more attention is given to perfecting ventilating 
apparatus, the time will probably come when 40 
cubic feet or even 50 cubic feet may be obtained 
within reasonable limits of expense and this is the 
goal toward which all progress should be aimed. 

Air Velocities. — The inlets and flues in a ven- 
tilating system should be so designed that the velo- 
cities of ventilating air will be as follows : Leaving 
the register into the room 350 linear feet per minute ; 
passing through distributing flues and risers 750 
linear feet per minute ; in mains and branches 100(7 
to 1500 linear feet per minute. The velocity of ven- 
tilating air in toilet rooms, laboratories, gymnasiums, 
physical training rooms and other such special 
rooms may be varied from the above to suit the 
special conditions as the judgment of the engineer 
dictates. But all such rooms should have much lar- 
ger per capita supply than ordinary school rooms. 



108 



Heating by Rotation. — As a measure of economy, 
many heating and ventilating plants are so designed 
that for quick preliminary heating of the building 
the ventilating air is drawn from within the building 
itself into the fan chamber, and thence forced back 
again into the building thus making a complete 
rotation of the building without contact with the 
cold air from out doors. This process no doubt 
saves expense in the initial heating of buildings, and 
may be recommended for that purpose only, but all 
air for ventilating purposes, while rooms are oc- 
cupied, should be drawn directly from out doors and 
if possible from a point above the building rather 
than near the ground. 

Automatic Control. — Wherever the funds in hand 
will permit, the heating and ventilating apparatus 
should be automatically controlled, and no first- 
class building may be considered complete without 
such control. "While many systems are on the mar- 
ket the Johnson system and Powers system are 
probably in more general use than any others. One 
remarkable effect of impure air is to render the oc- 
cupants of the room more or less insensible to heat. 
Thus both teachers and pupils in poorly ventilated 
rooms will frequently complain of cold when the 
thermometer indicates the actual temperature of the 
room to be as high as 75 or 80. Under such con- 
ditions the addition of more heat, without pure fresh 
air, simply aggravates the conditions. Moreover, if 
teachers in various parts of the building are per- 
mitted to tinker with the heating and ventilating ap- 
paratus to satisfy their own whims, or even if an 
experienced janitor is allowed to have control of 

109 



this matter, the results will prove very unsatisfactory 
and annoying. By the use of an automatic system 
the heat may be kept permanently at any desire^ 
degree in every portion of the building, and the flow 
of ventilating air may be controlled according to the 
wishes of the superintendent of the building, and 
kept within any bounds desired. This result is ac- 
complished by means of thermostats, located in each 
room, which are connected by means of compressed 
air pipes with various dampers located at the proper 
points in the heating and ventilating system. In 
some of the systems the work is accomplished by 
means of electricity instead of compressed air. Ther- 
mostatic valves are also provided for attachment 
directly to steam or hot water radiators so that no 1 
matter what system of heating and ventilating is 
used, automatic regulation is not only feasible but 
has been demonstrated absolutely reliable. In gen- 
eral the cost of automatic regulation amounts to 
about one-tenth or one-twelfth of the cost of the en- 
tire heating and ventilating system. 

Location of Openings. — The location of inlets and 
outlets for ventilating air is a very important mat- 
ter and has much to do with the efficiency with 
which the ventilating air performs its work. Nat- 
urally the air currents within a room always tend 
downward owing to the cooling effect of windows 
and the outside walls, and the movement of the air 
which is thus slightly chilled is over the floor and 
back toward the warmer and inner walls again. 
The tendency of the air near the ceiling is naturally 
toward the outer walls and the falling currents 
above mentioned. For these reasons the proper lo- 



110 



cation for the air inlets is upon the inside wall at a 
point as nearly as possible central with reference to 
the outside or exposed walls, and the best prac- 
tice includes the use of diffusers to spread the air in 
every direction horizontally, as it enters the rooms, 
in order to encourage its distribution into all por- 
tions of the room, and avoid the danger of a mere 
circling of air in a vertical plane from the point of 
inlet to the point of outlet. It is also advisable to 
have the inlet high enough to avoid any possibility 
of draught upon the occupants of the room and the 
best practice of the present day is to locate inlets 
at least seven feet above the floor level. From the 
foregoing reasoning, it will be obvious that the out- 
let for vitiated air should also be on the inner and 
warmer wall of the room, and should be in or near 
the floor so as to catch all impure air as it passes 
over the floor, before it has an opportunity to rise 
along the inside wall and become again a part of the 
air current ventilating the room. Where it is pos- 
sible to do so, it is advantageous to have two inlets 
and outlets for the purpose of better distribution of 
the ventilating air. 

Humidity. — We do not usually note by our feel- 
ings the presence of moisture in the air any more 
than we note the air itself. It is only by the lack of 
moisture that its absence is manifest. Of course 
there is not in nature such a thing as dry air or air 
wholly without moisture. The warmer the air is, the 
greater amount of vapor is required to produce a 
given percentage of moisture ; and the colder the air 
is, the less vapor is required to produce a given 
percentage of moisture. This explains why the 

111 



percentage of moisture contained in outside winter 
air is comparatively small, and when such air is 
warmed to 70 degrees or higher without any in- 
crease of moisture, the capacity of the warm air for 
absorbing additional moisture is very great, and 
therefore evaporation from all moist surfaces ex- 
posed to it becomes rapid. As a result the mucous 
membranes of the nasal passages, the skin, and the 
moist surfaces of the eye and ear, are more or less 
affected and often serious discomfort results. In 
view of these conditions the larger and more com- 
plex systems of heating and ventilating, at least in 
the better grade of school buildings, include ap- 
paratus for maintaining the humidity of the air at a 
percentage approved by the best medical authority, 
and wherever the funds in hand will admit of such 
equipment it should be included. 

Filtering Air for Ventilation. — Another refine- 
ment found in the better grade of heating and ven- 
tilating plants, consists of air filters for the purpose 
of purifying the air which is used for ventilation. 
While such an equipment may be desirable or neces- 
sary in some localities which are particularly dusty 
or smoky, it is not as yet considered of sufficient im- 
portance to be included in the majority of American 
school buildings. Hygienically considered, it is not 
of great importance, as the filters would in no case 
remove disease germs. And simply to remove dust 
from the air by the ordinary methods of Alteration 
requires so much extra fan power in forcing air 
through the filters that the result does not justify the 
added expense. 



112 



NOTE. All readers who care to study a more ex- 
haustive and technical paper relating to the warm- 
ing and ventilating of school buildings are re- 
ferred to a treatise written by Professor S. H. Wood- 
bridge of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology 
for the Board of Education of the State of Con- 
necticut in 1898. Professor Rolla C. Carpenter, in his 
exhaustive work on heating and ventilating build- 
ings, page 430, publishes this treatise and pro- 
nounces it the best general discussion of the subject 
hitherto published. The author acknowledges this 
paper to be his authority for many of the con- 
clusions on this subject contained in the present 
work. 



113 



STATE SCHOOL CODES. 



The following states are still without any definite 
laws or code governing the character of public 
school buildings, in regard to construction : 



Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Delaware 

District of Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Michigan 

None of the states in the above list have any laws 
lor codes governing the construction of school build- 
ings at the present time (January, 1910), although 
some of the states in this list have laws requiring 
[drawings and specifications for school buildings to 
>e submitted to the state boards of health or the 
state factory inspector for approval before the build- 
ings are constructed. These conditions obtain in 



Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Mexico 

North Carolina 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Ehode Island 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Washington 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



115 



Indiana, Vermont and one or two other states. How- 
ever, no state in the above list has any requirements 
whatever regarding the heating and ventilating, 
lighting, sanitation, fireproofing or panic proofing of 
school buildings. 

In all of these states, notably Missouri and Illi- 
nois, the large cities like St. Louis and Chicago have 
city building codes, the provisions of which apply to 
school buildings in common with all other buildings, 
but as a rule such city building ordinances relate 
only to safety of construction and fire protection. 

THE CONNECTICUT LAWS. 

All public schoolhouses, the construction of which 
was not begun before the passage of this act, shall 
be constructed in accordance with the provisions 
hereof. 

No school house for the accommodation of pupils 
of grammar school grade, or of a lower grade, shall 
be constructed so as to contain more than two 
stories above the basement. No schoolhouse for the 
accommodation of pupils of a higher grade than 
grammar school grade shall be constructed so as to 
contain more than two stories above the basement, 
unless such schoolhouse is of fireproof construction 
throughout, and in that event shall not exceed three 
stories above the basement. 

All schoolhouses of eight or more class rooms not 
of fireproof construction throughout shall be built 
as follows: (a) The outer walls shall be brick 
natural or artificial stone, terra cotta blocks, re-in- 
forced concrete, or other fireproof material, (b) 
The walls separating the schoolrooms from the hall 



116 






or corridors shall be of masonry or other fireproof 
material, (c) There shall he a stairway constructed 
in at least two opposite sides of the building leading 
to the ground floor from the floor or floors above, 
and no such schoolhouses hereafter built shall con- 
tain circular stairs, (d) There shall be one exit con- 
structed in at least each of two opposite sides of the 
building upon the first floor leading to the ground, 
which may be the same as the exits from the floor or 
floors above the first, (e) The stairs and stairways 
shall be of fireproof construction. (f) All doors 
leading from rooms into halls or corridors shall be 
hung so as to swing into the hall or corridor, and all 
doors leading from the corridors out of the building 
shall be so hung as to swing outward, (g) There 
shall be a door of fireproof material at the head of 
each stairway leading from the first floor to the 
basement. (h) All wooden partitions, ceilings, 
floors and woodwork about the heating apparatus 
or plant shall be covered with asbestos, tin, sheet 
iron, or other fireproof material so as to effectually 
overcome danger from fire. 

No door leading from a schoolroom into a hall or 
corridor, or from a hall or corridor out of the build- 
ing shall, during school hours, be locked or bolted, 
or secured in any other manner than by a spring 
which will readily yield to pressure from the inside. 

There shall be placed in a hall or corridor of 
every such school an alarm consisting of a bell or 
gong arranged or equipped so as to be sounded from 
at least one convenient station or place upon each 
floor, and of sufficient size and volume of tone to be 
distinctly heard in every room when sounded. In the 
absence of such alarm there shall be placed in each 

117 



room an alarm consisting of a bell or gong of suffi- 
cient volume to be heard throughout the room where 
placed, all of which alarms shall be arranged or 
equipped so as to be sounded simultaneously from 
the same station or place, at least one of which 
stations or places shall be conveniently located in a 
hall or corridor upon each floor. 

Any janitor, teacher, or other person who violates 
the provisions of the fourth section of this act shall 
be fined not more than three hundred dollars, or im- 
prisoned not more than three months, or both. 
Every member of a board of education, school 
board, board of school visitors, or building com- 
mittee, or official who is charged with the duty of 
planning, contracting for, or building a public 
schoolhouse, who plans or contracts, or participates 
in contracting for, or votes to build, or builds such 
schoolhouse in violation of any of the provisions of 
this act shall be fined not more than three hundred 
dollars, or imprisoned not more than three months, 
or both. 

Approved June 10, 1909. 

THE KANSAS LAW. 

Be it enacted by the Legislature of the State of 
Kansas : 

Doors in Schoolhouses. — That the doors of all 
public or private schoolhouses of more than one 
story shall open outwards, and all doors of school- 
houses shall remain unlocked while school is in ses- 
sion. 

Separate Exits. — That in every public or private 
schoolhouse of two or more stories every story above 

118 



the first shall be provided with either two or more 
exits from the upper floor, separate and distinct from 
the exits of the lower floor, or shall be provided with 
sufficient and suitable fire escapes, which shall be 
built of iron or steel. 

Furnaces. — That the tops of all furnaces in public 
or private schoolhouses shall be covered with as- 
bestos covering or masonry, and the top of such fur- 
nace shall not be nearer than eighteen inches to the 
nearest woodwork above. The ceiling above said 
furnace shall be covered with asbestos. 

Plans — State Architect. — That no contract shall 
be let for the erection of any school building, nor 
shall any public funds be paid out for the erection of 
schoolhouses of two or more stories, until the plans 
for such buildings shall have been submitted to the 
state architect and approved as to all the require- 
ments of this act. 

Inspections. — That each county superintendent 
shall annually inspect each public school building, 
including the county high-school building, in dis- 
tricts under his supervision; and the mayor or fire 
marshal shall annually inspect all public and private 
school buildings in cities of the second class ; and the 
fire marshal shall annually inspect all public and pri- 
vate school buildings in cities of the first class. The 
examining officer under this section shall report to 
the respective school boards having jurisdiction any 
violation of this act, or any conditions which he may 
deem dangerous, or which will in any way prevent a 
speedy exit from the building, and it shall be the 
duty of said school board when thus notified im- 
mediately to make such changes as are required by 

119 



this act, and such boards are hereby authorized to 
draw upon their general revenue funds, without 
further appropriation, to comply with all require- 
ments of this act. 

Fire Drills.— That in every public or private 
school haying more than one hundred pupils (ex- 
cepting colleges and universities) a fire drill and 
summary dismissal from the building shall be prac- 
ticed at least once each month at some time during 
school hours, aside from the regular dismissal at the* 
close of the day's session. 

Penalties. — That any officer or member of a 
school board who shall permit any provision of this 
act to be violated for sixty days may be removed from 
his office by a civil action. Independent of such civil 
action, any officer, member of a school board, city 
superintendent, principal or teacher violating any 
provision of this act shall be guilty of a misde- 
meanor, and shall be punished by a fine of not less 
than fifty dollars or more than five hundred dollars, 
or by imprisonment in jail not exceeding six months, 
or by both such fine and imprisonment; provided, 
however, that this act shall not prevent the prosecu- 
tion and punishment of an officer or other person 
under the Ordinary provisions of the crimes act for 
death or injury to any child in a public or private 
school occasioned by the negligence of such officer 
or other person. 

When Effective — Penalties. — That within sixty 
days after the taking effect of this act the pro- 
vision of section 1 of this act must be fully 
complied with, and within one hundred and twenty 
days the provisions of sections 2 and 3 must be com- 

120 



plied with; and any neglect to comply with the pro- 
visions of this act beyond the times herein specified 
shall subject the officers and persons named in this 
act to the penalties prescribed in this act. 

This act shall take effect and be in force from 
and after its publication in the statute-book. 

Approved February 23, 1909. 
Published May 29, 1909. 

MASSACHUSETTS LAW. 

In the State of Massachusetts, school, and all other 
public buildings are under the authority of the In- 
spection Department of the District Police, whose 
inspectors are required to enforce the laws regard- 
ing factories and public buildings. The city of Bos- 
ton has a school house commission consisting at the 
present time (January 1st, 1910) of three persons: 
K. Clipston Sturgis, Jas. B. Noyes and Tilton S. Bell. 
This commission has full charge of the school 
buildings in the city of Boston, determines the char- 
acter of buildings to be erected for school purposes, 
selects the architects and approves the drawings and 
specifications used for the construction of such build- 
ings, and has prepared a very elaborate and itemized 
building code, relating to school buildings for the 
city of Boston, based on the experience and re- 
searches of the members of the commission, as well 
as the experience gained from the construction of 
many buildings in recent years. It is believed that 
this code represents the very acme of public school 
requirements at the present day, and may safely be 
considered as authoritative, proper allowance being 
made for local modifications and conditions neces- 

121 



sary in the different parts of the country. This code 
is reproduced in full by permission from the 190'9 
report of the Boston School House Commission 
among the following codes. 

State Law: — Form of specification to accompany 
plans for public buildings and schoolhouses. 

This form is intended to give architects and 
others general information as to what is required by 
law and the regulations of this department, and, if 
fully filled out, may be accepted by the inspector in 
place of a copy of the building specifications, but full 
detail specifications may be required if deemed 
essential to a clear understanding of the plans. 

The law requires that a copy of the plans of every 
public building and every schoolhouse (except in the 
city of Boston) shall be deposited with the inspector 
of factories and public buildings of the district in 
which such building is located, before the erection of 
the building is begun, which plans shall also include 
the system or method of ventilation to be provided, 
together with such portion of the specification as the 
inspector may require. 

The plans usually required are a plan of each 
floor, including the basement and the attic, if the at- 
tic is occupied, and a front and a side elevation, and 
also plans and sectional detail drawings of the sys- 
tem of ventilation. Further plans may be required 
by the inspector if deemed by him to be necessary. 

In planning buildings to be used for schoolrooms, 
or places of assemblage above the first story, pro- 
vision should be made for at least two stairways, and 
such stairways should be as far apart as practicable. 

122 



No such stairways should be less than four feet wide 
in the clear, and winding steps should be avoided. 
The height of rise and width of tread of all stairs, 
measured on the cut of the stringer, should be given 
on the plans. No flight of stairs should be more 
than fifteen steps between landings. 

The main stairways from places of assemblage 
should have a width of not less than twenty inches 
for every hundred persons accommodated therein. 
Such stairways should be railed on both sides. Alt 
outside doors to such buildings should open out- 
wardly, and be plainly so shown on plans. The 
standing leaf of all pairs of doors leading to ways of 
egress should be fastened by face bolts, operated at 
top and bottom by one handle, at a convenient height 
from the floor. 

In the ventilation of school buildings the many 
hundred examinations made by the inspector of this 
department have shown that the following require- 
ments can be easily complied with : 

1. That the apparatus will, with proper manage- 
ment, heat all the rooms, including the corridors, to 
70 degrees F. in any weather. 

2. That, with the rooms at 70 degrees and a 
difference of not less than 40 degrees, between the 
temperature of the outside air and that of the air 
entering the room at the warm-air inlet, the ap- 
paratus will supply at least thirty cubic feet of air 
per minute for each scholar accommodated in the 
rooms. 

3. That such supply of air will so circulate in 
the rooms that no uncomfortable draught will be 
felt, and that the difference in temperature between 



123 



any two points on the breathing plane in the oc- 
cupied portion of a room will not exceed 3 degrees. 

4. That vitiated air in amount equal to the sup- 
ply from the inlets will be removed through the ven- 
tiducts. 

5. That the sanitary appliances will be so ven- 
tilated that no odors therefrom will be perceived in 
any portion of the building. 

To secure the approval of this department of 
plans showing methods or systems of heating and 
ventilation, the above requirements must be guaran- 
teed in the specifications accompanying the plans. 

MINNESOTA LAW. 

NOTE : The State of Minnesota has no definite 
law or code governing the construction of school 
buildings but all plans for school buildings in the 
State of Minnesota must be prepared in accordance 
with the regulations of the State Board of Health 
which are as follows : 

No school room, or class room, except an as- 
sembly room, shall have a seating capacity that will 
provide less than eighteen square feet of floor space 
and 216 cubic feet of air space per pupil, and no ceil- 
ing in buildings hereafter to be erected shall be less 
than twelve feet from the floor. 

A system of ventilation, in order to be approved 
by the Minnesota State Board of Health, shall fur- 
nish not less than thirty cubic feet of air per minute 
for each person that the room will accommodate, 
when the difference of the temperature between th<^ 
outside air and the air in the school room shall be 
thirty degrees F. or more. 

124 



In a gravity system of ventilation, in connection 
with a furnace or steam plant, the flues for admitting 
fresh air to the room, as well as the vent flues, shall 
have a horizontal area of not less than one square 
foot for every nine persons that the room will ac- 
commodate. 

The flues for a "plenum" or "vacuum" system 
of ventilation shall have a horizontal area of not less 
than one square foot for every fifteen persons that 
the room will accommodate. 

The window space shall equal one-fifth of the 
floor space of the school room. 

In all rooms not exceeding twenty-five feet in 
width all the light shall be admitted to the left of the 
pupils. 

In rooms exceeding twenty-five feet in width, 
light shall be admitted to the left and rear of the 
pupils. 

Translucent instead of opaque shades shall be 
used in the windows for controlling the light. 

The top of the windows shall be as near the ceil- 
ing as the mechanical construction of the building 
will allow. 

No cloak room shall be less than six feet wide, 
nor shall it have less than one window. 

The so-called "sanitary wardrobe" which allows 
the foul air of the room to pass through the clothing 
of the children before passing into the vent duct, 
shall be condemned as unsanitary. 

THE NEW HAMPSHIRE LAW. 

Buildings, etc., in Cities. — No schoolhouse shall 
be erected, altered, remodeled, or changed in any 
city school district, unless the plans thereof have 

125 



been previously submitted to the school board of that 
district and received its approval, and all new school 
houses shall be constructed under the direction of a 
joint special committee, chosen in equal numbers by 
the city councils and the school board. 

Upon the completion of a new schoolhouse, the 
city councils shall, by vote, transfer it to the care 
and control of the school board. "Whenever a school- 
house shall no longer be needed for public school 
purposes, the school board shall re-transfer its care 
and control to the city. 

Doors to Open Outward. — The outer doors and 
doors of passage leading outward, of churches here- 
after built or rebuilt, school houses containing more 
than two school rooms, and halls and other buildings 
used for public gatherings, shall open outward ; and 
it shall be the duty of the selectman of towns to see 
that these provisions are complied with, and to 
prosecute persons who neglect to do so. 

THE NEW JERSEY LAW. 

Suitable Accommodations Must be Provided. — 

Each school district shall provide suitable school 
facilities and accommodations for all children re- 
siding in the district and desiring to attend the pub- 
lic schools therein. 

Penalty for Non-compliance. — Whenever such 
school facilities or accommodations shall be inade- 
quate and unsuited to the number of pupils at- 
tending or desiring to attend such schools, the 
county superintendent of schools shall transmit to 
the custodian of the school moneys, of the school dis- 

126 



trict an order directing him to withhold from the dis- 
trict all moneys in his hands to the credit of such 
school district, received from the state appropria- 
tion or from the state school tax, until suitable 
facilities or accommodations shall be provided, and 
shall notify the board of education of such district 
of his action, with the reasons therefor. Such 
order shall not take effect until approved, in writing, 
by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 
and said approval shall state when said order shall 
take effect. 

Suitable Water-Closets. — Each board of educa- 
tion shall provide at least two suitable and con- 
venient outhouses or water-closets for each of the 
school-houses under its control. Said outhouses and 
said water-closets, if detached from the school- 
houses, shall be separated by a substantial, close 
fence, not less than seven feet in height. The board 
of education shall have said outhouses and water- 
closets kept in a clean and whole&ome condition. 

Amount Raised without Submission to Voters. — 

The question of raising the amount needed to carry 
into effect the provisions of this section shall not be 
submitted to the legal voters of the school district, 
but the board of education shall notify the assessor 
or assessors and collector, by notice signed by the^ 
president and district clerk or secretary, of the 
amount for such purpose, and such amount shall be 
assessed, levied and collected at the same time and 
in the same manner as other special school taxes are 
assessed, levied and collected. 

Approval of Plans by State Board. — In order that 
due care may be exercksd in the heating, lighting 

127 



and ventilating, and other hygienic conditions of 
public school buildings hereafter to be erected, all 
plans and specifications for any such proposed 
school buildings shall be submitted to the State 
Board of Education for suggestion and criticism be- 
fore the same shall be accepted by the board of edu- 
cation of the district in which it is proposed to erect 
such building. 

Doors to Open Outwardly. — In any school-house 
of two or more stories in height, the doors leading 
from the class-rooms to the corridors, and from said 
corridors to the street or to the ground surrounding 
such school-house shall open outwardly. All swing- 
doors shall have plate-glass windows of suitable 
dimensions. 

Requirements in Erecting School-Houses. — In 

order that the health, sight and comfort of the pupils 
may be properly protected, all school-houses here- 
after erected shall comply with the following con- 
ditions : 

I. Light. — Light shall be admitted from the left, 
or from the left and rear of class-rooms, and the 
total light area must, unless strengthened by the use 
of reflecting lenses, equal at least twenty per centum 
of floor space ; 

II. Ventilation. — School-houses shall have in 
each class-room at least eighteen square feet of floor 
space, and not less than two hundred cubic feet of 
air space per pupil. All school buildings shall have 
an approved system of ventilation by means of which) 
each class-room shall be supplied with fresh air at| 
the rate of not less than thirty cubic feet per minute j 
for each pupil ; 

128 



III. Height of Ceilings. — All ceilings shall be at 
least twelve feet in height • 

IV. Stairs. — All stairs, except cellar stairs, shall 
be not less than fonr feet in width and shall have in- 
termediate landings. The several flights of stairs 
shall be enclosed by brick walls or by partitions of 
slow burning construction, and without open well 
holes. The risers of stairs shall not exceed seven and 
one-half inches in height, and the treads shall be at 
least ten inches in width, exclusive of the projecting 
nosings ; 

V. — Every school-house having eight rcoms shall 
have two flights of stairs of not less than four feet 
in width, or, in lieu thereof, one flight of stairs 
situated near the center of the building, not less than 
six feet in width ; 

VI. — Every school-building having more than 
eight and less than sixteen rooms, shall have two 
flights of stairs not less than five feet in width ; 

VII. — Every school-house having sixteen or more 
rooms shall have three flights of stairs not less than 
four feet in width, or, in lieu thereof, two complete 
flights of stairs not less than six feet in width ; 

VIII. — Every building more than one story in 
height shall have metal ceilings, wooden ceilings 
painted white, or some light-tint, or plastered ceil- 
ings on metal lath. 

THE NEW YORK LAW. 

No schoolhouse shall hereafter be erected in any 
city of the third class or in any incorporated village 
or school district, and no addition to a school build- 






129 



ing in any such place shall hereafter be erected, the 
cost of which shall exceed five hundred dollars, until 
the plans and specifications for the same shall have 
been submitted to the commissioner of education and 
his approval indorsed thereon. Such plans and 
specifications shall show in detail the ventilation, 
heating and lighting of such building. 

Such commissioner of education shall not approve 
any plans for the erection of any school building, or 
additior thereto, unless the same shall provide at 
least fifteen square feet of floor space and two hun- 
dred cubic feet of air space for each pupil to be ac- 
commodated in each study or recitation room there- 
in, and no such plans shall be approved by him un- 
less provision is made therein, for assuring at least 
thirty cubic feet of pure air every minute per pupil, 
and the facilities for exhausting the foul or vitiated 
air therein shall be positive and independent of 
atmospheric changes. 

No tax voted by a district meeting or other com- 
petent authority in any such city, village or school 
district exceeding the sum of five hundred dollars, 
shall be levied by the trustees until the commissioner 
of education shall certify that the plans and specifi- 
cations for the same comply with the provisions of 
this section. 

All schoolhouses for which plans and detailedl 
statements shall be filed and approved, as required] 
by this section, shall have all halls, doors, stairways,, 
seats, passageways and aisles, and all lighting and] 
heating appliances and apparatus, arranged t< 
facilitate egress in cases of fire or accident and t( 
afford the requisite and proper accommodations foi 

130 



public protection in such cases. All exit doors shall 
open outwardly, and shall, if double doors be used, 
be fastened with movable bolts operated simultan- 
eously by one handle from the inner face of the door. 
No staircase shall be constructed with wider steps in 
lieu of a platform, but shall be constructed with 
straight runs, changes in direction being made by 
platforms. No door shall run immediately upon a 
flight of stairs, but a landing at least the width of 
the door shall be provided between such stairs and 
such doorways. 

This act shall take effect immediately. 

The following points should be specially ob- 
served : 

1. The plans and specifications must be sub- 
mitted in duplicate, the original set to be returned 
after the indorsement of approval, the duplicate to 
be retained on file at this Department. 

2. The plans and specifications must show in de- 
tail the ventilation, heating and lighting of the build- 
ing and must be accompanied by a guaranty fron 
the contractor that the system of ventilation des- 
cribed will provide at least 30 cubic feet of air 
every minute for each pupil. It will be necessary to 
give the size of windows, distance from top of win- 
dow to ceiling and number of panes in sash. 

3. At least 15 square feet of floor space and 200 
cubic feet of air space for each pupil to be accom- 
modated in each study or recitation room must be 
provided. In this connection it will be necessary not 
only to state the size of the rooms (length, breadth 
and height) but also to give the number of in- 
dividual desks to be placed in the room. 

131 



The plans and specifications must clearly show 
that proper provision is made in all respects "to> 
facilitate egress in cases of fire or accident and to 
afford requisite and proper accommodations for pub- 
lic protection in such cases.' ' 

THE NORTH DAKOTA LAWS. 

Whenever a school house is to be purchased^ 
erected or constructed in a common school distrir 
the school board shall consult with the county 
superintendent of schools, and the county superin- 
tendent of health, with regard to plans providing for 
the proper construction, lighting, heating and ven- 
tilation; provided, further, that it shall be the duty 
of the state superintendent of public instruction to 
furnish plans for school houses of one and two 
rooms as will be in accord with the best ideas per- 
taining to heating, lighting, ventilating and other 
sanitary requirements. 

Board of Inspectors. — The county superintendent 
of health, the chairman of the board of county com- 
missioners and the county superintendent of schools 
of each county are hereby constituted a board for 
the purpose of inspecting school houses and out- 
buildings with reference to their sanitary condition, 
and whenever the county superintendent of schools 
shall report to said board of inspection that a school 
house or out-building is in an unsanitary or unsafe, 
condition, said board shall inspect the same and shall 
direct the district school board to make such changes*! 
or repairs as are necessary to make such building] 
or buildings sanitary, safe and fit for school pur- 
poses. 

132 



THE PENNSYLVANIA LAW. 

To Purchase or Rent Lots and Erect School- 
liouses. — They shall cause suitable lots of ground to 
be procured and suitable buildings to be erected, 
purchased or rented, for school houses, and shall sup- 
ply the same with proper conveniences and fuel, and 
shall have power, with the directors and controllers 
of adjoining districts, to establish joint schools, and 
the expense shall be paid as may be agreed upon by 
the directors and controllers of said districts. 

School Buildings. — That in order that due care 
may be exercised in the heating, lighting and ven- 
tilating of public school buildings hereafter erected, 
no school house shall be erected by any board of 
education or school district in this State, the cost of 
which shall exceed four thousand ($4,000.00) dollars, 
until the plans and specifications for the same shall 
show in detail the proper heating, lighting and ven- 
tilating of such building. 

Lighting. — Light shall be admitted from the left 
or from the left and rear of class-rooms, and the total 
light area must, unless strengthened by the use of 
reflecting lenses, equal at least twenty-five per cen- 
tum of floor space. 

Class-rooms — Air-space — Heating. — School 
houses shall have in each class-room at least fifteen 
square feet of floor space, and not less than two hun- 
dred cubic feet of air space per pupil, and shall pro- 
vide for an approved system of indirect heating and 
ventilation, by means of which each class-room shall 
be supplied with fresh air at the rate of not less, than 
thirty cubic feet per minute for each pupil, and 

133 



warmed to maintain an average temperature of 
seventy degrees Fahrenheit during the coldest 
weather. 

THE SOUTH DAKOTA LAW. 

School House Plans. — Plans for school buildings 
approved by State Superintendent: In order that 
due care may be exercised in the heating, lighting 
and ventilation of public school buildings hereafter 
erected, no school house shall be erected by any 
board of education or school district board in this 
State until the plans and specifications for the same 
showing in detail the proper heating, lighting and 
ventilation of such building shall have been ap- 
proved by the superintendent of public instruction. 

School houses shall have in each class room at 
least fifteen square feet of floor space, and not less 
than two hundred cubic feet of air space per pupil, 
and shall provide for an approved system of heating 
and ventilation by means of which each class room 
shall be supplied with fresh air at the rate of not less 
than thirty cubic feet per minute for each pupil, and 
have a system of heating capable of maintaining an 
average temperature of seventy degrees Fahrenheit 
during the coldest weather. 

THE UTAH LAW. 
School Sites and Buildings. — When necessary for 
the welfare of the schools of the district, or to pro- 
vide proper school privileges for the children there- 
in, or whenever petitioned so to do by one-fourth of 
the resident tax payers of the district, the board 
shall call a meeting of the qualified voters, as de- 
fined in Section eighteen hundred and eleven, at 
some convenient time and place fixed by the board, 

134 



to vote upon the question of selection, purchase, ex- 
change or sale of a school house site, or the erection, 
removal, purchase, exchange, or sale of a school 
house, or for payment of teachers' salaries, or for 
the current expenses of maintaining schools. If a 
majority of such voters present at such meeting 
shall by vote select a school house site, or shall be in 
favor of the purchase, exchange, or sale of a desig- 
nated school house site, or of the erection, removal, 
or sale of a school house, as the case may be, the 
board shall locate, purchase, exchange or sell such 
site, or erect, remove, or sell such school house, as the. 
case may be, in accordance with such vote; pro- 
vided, that it shall require a two-thirds vote to order 
the removal of a school house. 

Provided that no school house shall hereafter be 
erected in any school district of this State not in- 
cluded in cities of the first and second class, and no 
addition to a school building in any such place, the 
cost of which school house or addition thereto shall 
exceed $1000, shall hereafter be erected until the 
plans and specifications for the same shall have been 
submitted to a commission consisting of 
the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 
the Secretary of the State Board of Health, and an 
architect to be appointed by the Governor, and their 
approval endorsed thereon. Such plans and specifi- 
cations shall show in detail the ventilation, heating, 
and lighting of such buildings. The commission 
herein provided shall not approve any plans for the 
erection of any school building, or addition thereto, 
unless the same shall provide at least fifteen square 
feet of floor space and two hundred cubic feet of air 



135 



space, for each pupil to be accommodated in each 
study or recitation room therein, and no such plans 
shall be approved by them unless provision is made 
therein for assuring at least thirty feet of pure air 
every minute for each pupil, and the facilities for ex- 
hausting the foul or vitiated air therein shall be 
positive and independent of atmospheric changes. 
No tax voted by a district meeting, or other com- 
petent authority in any such school district, shall be 
levied by the trustees until the commission shall 
certify that the plans and specifications for the 
same comply with the provisions of this Act. All 
school houses for which plans and detailed state- 
ments shall be filed and approved, as required by 
this Act, shall have all halls, doors, stairways, seats, 
passageways, and aisles, all lighting and heating ap- 
pliances and apparatus arranged to facilitate egress 
in cases of fire or accident, and to afford the re- 
quisite and proper accommodations for public pro- 
tection in such cases. 

No school house shall hereafter be built with the 
furnace or heating apparatus in the basement or im- 
mediately under such school building. 

The commission herein provided shall serve with- 
out compensation, but shall receive their actual and 
necessary expenses incurred in the performance of 
their official duties, except the architect, who shall 
receive as above provided, and four dollars per day 
while attending meetings of the commission, the 
amount for which shall be verified on oath and be 
paid from the state school fund. 

Approved March 9th, 1909. 

136 



THE VERMONT LAW. 

The words, "Public Buildings", as used in this 
chapter, shall mean churches, school buildings, hotels 
more than two stories high, and places of amusement 
more than one story high, and buildings, factories, 
mills or workshops more than two stories high in 
which persons are employed above the second story. 

Said board shall take cognizance of the interests 
of the life and health of the inhabitants of the State. 
shaU make or cause to be made sanitary investiga- 
tions and inquiries respecting causes of disease, 
especially of epidemics, and the means of preventing 
same; the sources of mortality and sickness and the 
effect of localities, employments, habits and circum- 
stances of life on the public health; and, when re- 
quested, or when, in their opinion, it is necessary, 
shall advise with municipal officers in regard to 
drainage, water supply and sewerage of towns and 
villages, and in regard to the erection, construction, 
heating, ventilation and sanitary arrangements of 
public buildings; and said^board may compel the 
owners of such buildings to provide them with the 
necessary appliances and fire escapes for preventing 
accidents to persons who may be in such buildings; 
and said board shall exercise the powers and author- 
ity imposed by law upon said board. 

Said board shall, when necessary, issue to local 
boards of health its regulation as to the lighting, 
heating and ventilation of school houses, and shall 
cause sanitary inspection to be made of churches, 
school houses and places of public resort, and make 
such regulations for the safety of persons attending 

137 



the same as said board deems necessary. Public 
buildings now standing or hereafter erected shall 
conform to the regulations of said board in respect 
to sanitary conditions and fire escapes necessary for 
the public health and for the safety of individuals 
in such public buildings. 

A person, corporation or committee intending to 
erect a public building shall submit plans thereof 
showing the method of heating, plumbing, ventila- 
tion and sanitary arrangements to said board, and 
procure its approval thereof, before erecting such 
building. 

A person, corporation or committee which erects 
a public building without the approval and with- 
out complying with the regulations of the state, 
board of health as provided for in the preceding 
section, shall be fined not more than five hundred 
dollars, nor less than one hundred dollars, and shall 
make such building to conform to the regulations of 
said board before the same is used, otherwise such 
building shall be deemed a nuisance, and be put in 
proper condition by the local health officer under the 
direction of said board at the expense of the owner. 

Said board may examine or cause to be ex- 
amined a school building or an outhouse and con- 
demn the same as unfit for occupation or use, and a 
building or outhouse so condemned by written notice 
served upon the chairman of the board of school 
directors, or the person having such school in charge, 
shall not be occupied or used until the same is re- 
paired and the sanitary conditions approved by the 
state board of health. A person who violates a pro- 
vision of this section shall be fined not more than 
fifty dollars nor less than five dollars. 

138 



THE VIRGINIA LAW. 

Approved March 11, 1908. 

Whereas, it is of great importance to the people 
of this commonwealth that public school buildings 
hereafter erected by any school board shall be 
properly heated, lighted and ventilated; therefore, 

1. Be it enacted by the general assembly of Vir- 
ginia, that the State board of inspectors for public 
school buildings shall not approve any plans for the 
erection of any school building, or room in addition 
thereto, unless the same shall provide at least fifteen 
square feet of floor space and two hundred cubic feet 
of air space for each pupil to be accommodated in 
each study or recitation room therein, and no such 
plans shall be approved by said board unless pro r 
vision is made therein for assuring at least thirty 
cubic feet of pure air every minute per pupil, and the 
facilities for exhausting the foul and vitiated air 
therein shall be positive and independent of atmos- 
pheric changes. All ceilings shall be at least twelve 
feet in height. 

2. All school houses for which plans and de- 
tailed statements shall be filed and approved by said 
board, as required by law, shall have all halls, doors, 
stairways, seats, passage-ways, and aisles, and all 
lighting and heating appliances and apparatus, ar- 
ranged to facilitate egress in cases of fire or ac- 
cidents, and to afford the requisite and proper ac- 
commodations for public protection in such cases. 
All exit doors in any school house of two or more 
stories in height shall open outwardly. No stair- 
case shall be constructed except with straight runs, 
changes in direction being made by platforms. No 

139 



3 
doors shall open immediately upon a flight of stairs, 
but a landing at least the width of the doors shall be 
provided between such stairs and such doorway. 

All school houses, as aforesaid, shall provide for 
the admission of light from the left, or from the left 
and rear of the pupils, and the total light area must 
be at least twenty-five per centum of the floor space. 

THE WEST VIRGINIA LAW. 

Must Provide Sites and Buildings. — The board of 
education of every district shall provide by purchase, 
condemnation, leasing, building or otherwise, suit- 
able school houses, and ground in their districts, in 
such locations as will best accommodate the pupils 
thereof, and improve such grounds and provide such 
furniture, fixtures and apparatus for the said school 
houses, as the comfort, health, cleanliness and con- 
venience of the pupils may require, and keep such 
grounds, school houses, furniture, fixtures and ap- 
paratus in good order and repair, but no board of 
education may purchase school apparatus of any 
kind without the advice and consent of the county 
superintendent first had in writing. 

County Superintendent Shall Approve Plans. — 

"Whenever any board of directors shall be authorized 
by the electors of their district to erect a school 
building, it shall be the duty of such board, before/ 
entering into any contract for the erection of any 
building, to obtain the approval of the county 
superintendent, of the plans and specifications for 
the building to be erected, including also the heat- 
ing, lighting, ventilating and safety thereof. 

140 



Approval of Location and Plans. — In the con- 
struction of school houses the board of education of 
each district shall have regard to economy, con- 
venience and durability of structure, and the health 
and comfort of pupils, and no such school house 
shall be constructed until the location and plan 1 
thereof have first been approved by the county 
superintendent, and in the event the board of edu- 
cation cannot agree upon plans or location, the 
county superintendent shall select the plans and lo- 
cation for such house. 

THE OHIO CODE. 

Classification According to Construction. 
First Class Construction, Fireproof Building. — 

This classification includes such buildings as are 
built entirely of incombustible, fire and water proof 
material, with all metal structural parts thoroughly 
fireproofed, except that the floors, doors, windows 
and the usual trim of rooms are of ordinary con- 
struction. 

Second Class Construction. Composite Buildings. 
— This classification includes such buildings as have 
the enclosing walls and roof covering of incom- 
bustible materials with doors, windows and frames 
of wood, and the interior walls of brick; or, columns 
and girders made of fireproofed iron and steel; the 
floor construction of wooden beams. 

In buildings of this class, a single thickness of 
metal lath or furring, and hard incombustible plaster 
will be deemed sufficient protection for iron and steel 
columns and girders. 

Third Class Construction. Frame Buildings. — 
This classification includes such buildings as have the ■ 

141 



enclosing and interior partition walls constructed en- 
tirely of wood. Wood frames covered with a veneer 
will be included in this class. 

Classification Required According to Height. 

Where the basement ceiling is 6 feet (six feet) or 
more above the grade line, the basement will be 
rated as the first story. 

All buildings over two stories high shall be of No. 
1 (fireproof) construction. 

All buildings one story high, without basement 
and with the floor line not over 3 feet inches (three 
feet no inches) above the grade line, can be of No. 3 
(frame) construction. 

Auditoriums. 

Any one room where more than one hundred 
(100) persons can congregate will be considered an 
assembly room. 

No assembly room can be located above the sec- 
ond story in buildings of the first class, above the 
first story in buildings of the second class; or in 
any building of the third class. 

One balcony may be used in connection with 
auditoriums, providing the same has means of egress 
in the same proportion as called for in school 
rooms. 

Dimensions of School and Class Rooms. 

Floor Space. — The minimum floor space per pupil 
to be as follows : 

Primary grades 12 (twelve) square feet per 
pupil. 

142 



Grammar grades 16 (sixteen) square feet per 
pupil. 

High Schools 18 (eighteen) square feet per pupil. 

Height of Stories. — Basement play and toilet 
rooms to be not less than eight feet high. 

Class rooms 20 feet inches (twenty feet no 
inches) wide and less, 11 feet inches (eleven feet 
no inches) story. 

Class rooms from 20 feet, 1 inch (twenty feet one 
inch) to 24 feet inches (twenty-four feet no inches) 
wide, 12 feet inches (twelve feet no inches) story. 

Class rooms 24 feet 1 inch (twenty-four feet one 
inch) to 28 feet inches (twenty-eight feet no 
inches) wide, 13 feet inches (thirteen feet no 
inches) story. 

Heater Room. 

For Buildings of First and Second Class Con- 
struction. — Furnaces, hot water heating boilers, and 
low pressure steam boilers may be located in the 
basements, providing the heating apparatus, breech- 
ing, fuel room and firing room are inclosed in fire- 
proof apartments, with masonry wall not less than 
1 foot, 1 inch (one foot, one inch) thick; with ceil- 
ings of reinforced concrete, brick or hollow tile 
arches, and provided with self-closing (not auto- 
matic) fire doors of a type as approved by the 
National Board of Fire Underwriters. 

No boiler or furnace shall be located under stair- 
ways or corridors. 

Exits. 

Buildings of First Class Construction. — Exits 
from rooms in the superstructure shall be in the 

143 



proportion of 30 inches (thirty inches) in width to 
every fifty persons or fraction thereof; but in no 
case shall an exit be less than 3 feet inches (three 
feet no inches) nor more than 6 feet inches (six 
feet no inches) wide. 

Nu fire escapes or stair towers will be necessary 
in buildings of first class construction and all exits 
shall lead to the corridors. 

Each basement room shall have a direct exit not 
less than 3 feet inches (three feet no inches) wide 
with stone, cement or iron stairs leading up to the 
grade line; area-ways around stairways shall have 
substantial hand rails and guards on both sides. 
These exits to be in addition to the usual service 
stairways and means of egress. 

Buildings of Second Class Construction. — Each 
room in superstructure used by pupils, or the public, 
shall have at least two separate and distinct means 
of egress. 

Two doors or openings leading into the same hall 
or corridor will be considered as only one means of 
egress. 

Communicating doors between any two class 
rooms will not be considered as a means of egress. 

The proportion of exits to the seating capacity 
shall not be less than 30 inches (thirty inches) to 
each fifty persons or fraction thereof. One half of 
the exits shall lead to the main corridors, and the 
other half to fire escapes or inclosed fireproof stair- 
ways. No^exit shall be less than 3 feet inches 
(three feet no inches) or more than 6 feet inches | 
(six feet no inches) wide. Each room in the base- 



144 



ment shall have a direct exit not less than 3 feet 
inches (three feet no inches) wide, with stone, 
cement or iron stairs leading up to the grade line. 

Area-ways around such stairways to have sub- 
stantial hand and guard rails on both sides. 

These exits to be in addition to the usual service 
stairways and means of ingress. 

Buildings of Third Class Construction. — Each 
room shall have at least two, three foot exits; one 
leading to the open with steps to the grade, and the 
other the usual means of ingress; all steps to have 
handrails on both sides. 

Stairways. 

Buildings of First Class Construction. — Buildings 
of first class construction shall have at least two 
stairways, located as far apart as possible • the same 
to be continuous from the grade line to the topmost 
story. No further means of egress will be necessary ^ 

Stairways must be separated from main corridors 
by self-closing doors at each story. 

Buildings of First and Second Class Construction. 

— No basement stairway shall be placed under nor 
within twenty feet of any stairway from the first to 
the second story, except under the following con* 
ditions, viz. : basement stairs may be placed under a 
first story stairway only when a grade line platform, 
open to the air, is inserted and no direct connection 
is made between the stairway below the platform 
and the one above the same. 

Inside stairways from the basement to the first 
story shall be inclosed in masonry walls not less than 

145 

A 



1 foot 1 inch (one foot one inch) thick, with fireproof 
ceiling or soffit above and be provided with a self 
closing fire door, as approved by the National Board 
of Fire Underwriters, which shall be placed at the 
head and foot of the stairway; the steps shall be of 
iron or concrete. 

Width of stairway shall be at the rate of 30 inches 
(thirty inches) per hundred persons or fraction 
thereof. 

No stairway shall be less than 3 feet 6 inches 
(three feet six inches) nor more than 6 feet inches 
(six feet no inches) wide; or have less than three 
nor more than sixteen risers in any run. 

No stairway shall have winders and all nosings 
shall be on a straight line. 

Maintain a uniform width in all stairways, and 
stair platforms, by rounding the corners and bevel- 
ing the angles. 

Provide hand rails on both sides of all stairways 
and steps. 

Stairways shall have a uniform rise and tread in 
each run, viz : 

Primary schools to have not over 6 inches (six 
inches) rise or less than 11 inch (eleven inch) tread. 

Grammar schools to have not over 6% inch (six 
and one-half inch) rise or less than 11 inch (eleven 
inch) tread. 

High schools to have not over 7 inch (seven inch) 
rise or less than 10% inch (ten and one-half inch) 
tread. 

The above dimensions to be cut on the stair horse. 

All treads shall be covered with rubber or lead 
mats. 



146 



Fire Escapes. 

To be Used on Buildings of Second Glass Con- 
struction. — One fire escape shall be used for each one 
hundred and fifty persons or fraction thereof. 

Fire escapes shall be 3 feet 6 inches (three feet 
six inches) wide, with 7 inch (seven inch) rise, 10 
inch (ten inch) tread and shall be constructed ac- 
cording to the Standard Specifications as prepared 
by this department. 

No runs shall have more than 18 (eighteen) nor 
less than 3 (three) risers. 

No winders shall be used, and return platforms, 
if used, shall be 3 feet 6 inches by 7 feet inches 
(three feet six inches by seven feet no inches). 

Platforms inserted in straight runs of fire escapes 
shall be no less than 3 feet 6 inches by 3 feet 6 inches 
(three feet six inches by three feet six inches). 

Where there are no openings in the walls, the 
fire escapes may be placed against the wall, and be 
supported upon standard brackets, and will be built 
according to the B Standard Specifications as pre- 
pared by this department. 

Where openings occur, the fire escape may be run 
dther at right angles to the wall; or, parallel to the 
vail provided it is placed 2 feet 6 inches (two feet 
six inches) away from same, and will be constructed 
ccording to the B Standard Specifications, except 
hat columns will be used instead of brackets and the 
onstruction will be known as the "C" Standard. 

Fire escapes shall be supported every eight feet, 
ither by standard brackets or steel columns as the 
ase may require. 

147 



"Where fire escapes run at right angles to the 
building, they will be supported on gas pipe or angle 
iron columns with a 3x3x3-8 inch (three inch by 
three inch by three-eighth inches) angle riveted to 
the top of the two columns, with columns thoroughly 
sway braced. 

When fire escapes parallel the wall, they must be 
supported by gas pipe or angle iron columns, with 
3x3x3-8 inch (three by three by three-eighth inches) 
L angle riveted to the top of the two columns and 
bolted to and through the wall. 

Balconies level with the floor line shall be placed 
at the top of all fire escapes. 

Where fire escapes run at right angles to the 
building, or are placed against the wall of the build- 
ing, the top balcony must be at least 3 feet 6 inches 
by 3 feet 6 inches (three feet six inches by three feel 
six inches.) 

Where fire escapes parallel the building and are 
placed 2 feet 6 inches (two feet six inches) awa^ 
from the wall, the top balcony must be at least 3 feeP 
6 inches by 6 feet inches (three feet six inches ty 
six feet no inches). 

Where balconies are used in connection with 
fire escapes, channel irons will be used instead of la^ 
tice work to support the balcony and the construe 
tion of the same must be figured to safely support 
total live and dead load of 125 (one hundred ai 
twenty-five) pounds per square foot. 

The following dimensions given for gas pi] 
columns, refer to the internal diameter of the sai 



148 



GAS PIPE COLUMNS. 

2% inch column, 15 feet and under. 

3 inch column, 15 to 17 feet. 
3% inch column, 17 to 19 feet. 

4 inch column, 19 to 21 feet. 

5 inch column, 21 to 25 feet. 

6 inch column, 25 to 30 feet. 

L ANGLE COLUMNS. 

2%x2%x% inch L 's, 15 feet and less. 
2y 2 x3x3/ 8 inch L's, 15 to 20 feet. 
2%x3%x% inch L's, 20 to 25 feet. 
Two 2y 2 x2y 2 x% inch riveted, 25 to 30 feet. 

Enclosed Fireproof Stairways. 

To be used in Buildings of Second Class Con- 
struction. — Emergency stairways shall be enclose^ 
by masonry wall not less than 1 foot 1 inch (one foot 
one inch) thick; with brick, hollow tile or rein- 
forced concrete floors, platforms and ceiling, and 
with iron, stone or concrete steps ; and provided with 
a sufficient number of windows to properly light the 
same. 

No open risers can be used. 

There shall be no basement openings into space 
under inclosed fireproof stairways. 

The same enclosure can be used for more than 
one stairway providing there is no direct connection 
between any two stairways or stories. 

Width of stairs shall be at the rate of 30 inches 
(30 inches) per hundred persons or fraction thereof. 
No stairway shall be less than 3 feet 6 inches (three 
feet 6 inches) nor more than 5 feet inches (five feet 
no inches) or have less than three or more than 
eighteen risers in any one run. 

149 



No winders shall be used and all nosings shall be 
on straight lines. 

Maintain a uniform width in all stairways and 
stair platforms by rounding the corners and beveling 
the angles. 

Provide gas pipe hand rails on both sides of stair- 
ways. 

Stairways shall have a uniform rise and tread in 
each run, viz : 

Primary schools to have not over 6 inch (six 
inch) rise or less than 11 inch (eleven inch) tread. 

Grammar schools to have not over 6% inch (six 
and one-half inch) rise or less than 11 inch (eleven 
inch) tread. 

High schools to have not over 7 inch (seven inch) 
rise or less than 10% inch (ten and one-half inch) 
tread. 

The above width of tread to be measured from 
nosing to nosing. 

Treads shall have roughened surface. 

Exit Doors. 

For Buildings of First, Second and Third Class 
Construction. — Exit doors shall not be less than 3 
feet inches (three feet no inches) wide, swing out- 
ward (viz., towards the open), and be so hung as not 
to interfere with passageways or close other open- 
ings. 

No double acting doors will be permitted. 

Seats, Desks and Aisles. 

All class, recitation, study, high school or as- 
sembly rooms seating more than fifteen persons shall 

150 



be equipped with seats, chairs or desks securely fas- 
tened to the floor by screws. 

The chairs and desks of teachers may be por- 
table. 

Auditorium Seats and Aisles.— The least average 
width of chairs measuring from center to center of 
arm, shall not be less than 20 inches (twenty inches) : 
and the least spacing of seats from back to back, 
measuring horizontally, shall not be less than 30 
inches (thirty inches). 

No seat shall have more than six seats between 
it and the aisle on either side. 

Aisles with seats on both sides of same shall not 
be less than 3 feet inches (three feet no inches) 
wide where they begin, and shall be increased in 
width towards the exits in the ratio of % inch (one- 
half inch) to the foot. 

Aisles having seats on one side only shall not be 
less than 2 feet inches, (two feet no inches) wide at 
their beginning, and increase in width the same as 
aisles having seats on both sides. 

Class Room Seats and Aisles. — Class rooms shall 
have aisles on all wall sides. 

In primary rooms, center aisles shall not be less 
than 17 inches (seventeen inches), and wall aisles 
not less than 2 feet 4 inches (two feet four inches]"' 
wide. 

In grammar rooms center aisles shall not be less 
than 18 inches (eighteen inches), and wall aisles not 
less than 2 feet 6 inches (two feet six inches) wide. 

In high school rooms center aisles shall not be 
less than 20 inches (twenty inches), and wall aisles 
not less than 3 feet inches (three feet no inches) 
wide. 

151 



3 
Passageways. 

No halls or passageways leading to stairways 
shall be less in width than the width of the stairway. 

Hall and passageways shall be so designed and 
proportioned as to prevent congestion or confusion. 

Flues, Etc. 

All flues shall rest on and start from the ground 
and shall be built with no less than 9 inch (nine inch) 
walls. 

Vent flues for class, recitation and high school 
rooms shall be of such a size as to provide not less 
than ten square inches of flue space per pupil. 
Registers shall be 50 per cent (fifty per cent) larger 
than the area of the flue. 

Vents for toilet rooms shall provide one square 
inch of flue space to thirteen cubic feet of contents. 

Vertical ventilation flues shall be built of brick 
with an outer wall not less than 8 inch (eight inch) 
thick. 

Division walls shall be no less than 4 inch (four 
inch) thick. 

Vent flues shall extend through and above the 
roof. 

Ventilation carried through floor construction, 
furring or stud partitions will not be permitted. 

Optics. 

The proportion of glass surface in each class, 
study, recitation or high school room shall be not 
less than one square foot of glass to every five square 
feet of floor surface. 

Windows must be placed either at the left or the 



152 



left and rear of the room, but in no case on the two 
opposite sides of any room. 

Tops of windows shall not be placed more than 
8 inches (eight inches) below the ceiling line. 

Vaults. 

Vaults for outside water closets to be not over 
six feet deep, and must be constructed of brick or 
concrete walls not less than 9 inches (nine inches) 
thick. No part of the vault to extend under the floor 
of the closet. 

Fire Extinguishers. 

Provide standpipe and hose in basement with 
sufficient length of l 1 /^ inch (one and one-half inch) 
hose to reach any part of the story. Hose lines shall 
be provided with nozzles and hose racks and hose 
shall be connected ready for use. 

Provide three-gallon chemical fire extinguishers 
of a type approved by the National Board of Fire 
Underwriters for all stories above the basement. 
Fire extinguishers shall be provided in the propor- 
tion of one to every four class rooms, or equivalent 
or fraction thereof. 

Hose and extinguishers must be examined at 
least once every six months, and be put in first class 
working condition ready for use. 

Plumbing. 

Remove waste plug from lavatory bowls, or use 
sinks instead of lavatories. 

Use sanitary school house drinking fountain with 
jet giving a continuous flow of water where holly 
service is available. 

Where pumps are used invert the outlet. 

153 

A 



No tin cup or tumblers shall be allowed in or 
about the building. 

Provide one water closet for each fifteen girls, 
and one for each twenty-five boys or fraction there- 
of. Provide one ventilated individual urinal for 
each fifteen boys, or fraction thereof. 

No dry closet system will be permitted. 

Plumbing shall be installed as per code pre- 
pared by this department. 

Gas Fittings. 

No rubber hose connections shall be made with 
any stove or heater; the same must be made with 
metallic piping. 

All piping shall be capped, tested and proved 
tight before plastering is done. 

Electric Work. 

Electric equipment shall be installed according 
to the "National Electric Code.' , 

Fire Alarm. 

All buildings with basement, and all buildings 
over one story high, to be provided with an 8 inch 
(eight inch) in diameter fire gong in connections 
enabling the ringing of same from any story or 
basement. 

In semi-detached buildings provide gong for 
each section. All gongs to be connected up so as to 
ring simultaneously from one story or basement of 
either section. 

Construction. 

No nine inch wall can be used over ten feet high 
except for flues. 

154 



Cover all floor joists with rough sub-floor as soon 
as the joists are laid. 

In calculating construction the superimposed 
load on class room floors must be assumed at 60 
(sixty) pounds per square foot, uniformly dis- 
tributed, and for halls, auditoriums, stairs and cor- 
ridors it must be assumed at 80 (eighty) pounds per 
square foot uniformly distributed. 

Hardware. 

Double acting spring hinges shall not be used, 
but all outside entrance and exit doors shall swing 
outward, and all inside doors shall swing outward 
toward the natural way of egress; all doors from 
halls to rooms and cloak rooms shall swing into halls. 

Single outside entrance doors shall have key 
locks on same that can be locked on the outside, but 
that can always be opened on the inside by simply 
turning the knob, whether same are locked on the 
outside or not, the locks being operated by key on 
outside only. No night latch attachment being 
placed on face of lock, or other bolts, hooks, thumb 
knobs or other locking device being used on doors. 

We advise that doors from halls to rooms and 
cloak rooms have no locks upon same, but that they 
be equipped with knob latches only; however, if 
locks are desired, same style locks as above specified 
for entrance doors shall be used so they can be 
locked on hall side, but that will always open on 
room and cloak room sides, whether locked on hall 
side or not. Locks of this kind are used so that the 
building and rooms can be locked from the outside to 
prevent access to building or rooms from the outside, 



155 



but so that under no conditions can a person be 
locked in the building. 

Outside doors used for exit purposes only, shall 
have one knob latch only, no bolts, hooks, or other 
locking devices being used. 

One of each pair of outside or inside double 
doors shall have a double extension panic bolt on 
same, bolt to have push bar, push plate, push handle 
or other device whereby the simple act of pushing 
against the same will release the top and bottom 
bolts at the same time and allow the doors to swing 
open. Independent top and bottom bolts will not be 
permitted. The outer door of each pair of outside 
and inside double doors shall have lock or latch as 
above specified. 

All bolts, latches, faces of locks, working parts 
of extension bolts, and other exposed working parts 
about this hardware, shall be cast bronze metal to 
prevent rusting, etc., which would interfere with the 
working of same. 

Sliding doors for entrance or exit purposes, or for 
openings that are in the natural course of exit from 
buildings shall not be used. 

Single doors to fire escapes, inclosed stair towers 
and emergency exits from basement shall be fitted 
with one knob latch, (without key) or equivalent. 

School room doors shall have knob latch (without 
key) or equivalent. 

The only doors in the building that may have key 
locks will be one main entrance door, library door, 
closets and boiler room doors. 



156 



Heating, Ventilation, etc. 

Heating. — The heating system shall be so de- 
signed and proportioned, as to uniformly heat all 
parts of the building to a uniform temperature of 
seventy (70) degrees in ten (10) degrees below zero 
(0) weather, and also so as to provide at least thirty 
cubic feet (30 cu. ft.) of outside fresh air per minute 
per person the room is designed to accommodate. 

The systems doing this and approved, are stoves, 
furnaces, indirect steam or hot water radiator sys- 
tem, or mechanical fan plenum system. A direct- 
indirect or semidirect system of steam or hot water 
heating will not be approved. 

Stoves. 

Stoves may only be used in one-story structures 
without basements, and same shall be closed jacketed 
stoves. Outside fresh air shall be brought in under 
the building through vitrified sewer tile or masonry 
ducts, and turn up and be connected to bottom of 
stove, then to circulate up around radiating surface 
of stove, between jackets and stove, and be heated 
and enter into the room from top of stove. Separate 
cast iron trays under stove, or solid cast iron bases 
in connection with stoves, shall be provided, these 
trays being kept up three inches (3 inches) above 
floor and having a diameter of at least two feet no 
inches (2 feet inches) greater than the diameter 
of stove. No smoke pipe connection between the 
stove and smoke flue, shall be over five feet no inches 
(5 feet inches) long. Yent flues as hereinafter 
specified, shall be used in connection with room 
where stoves are used. 



157 



Furnaces. 

Furnaces may be used in all classes of buildings, 
provided same, together with the fuel rooms in con- 
nection with same, be located in fireproof rooms as 
hereinafter specified. All furnaces shall have out- 
side fresh air connection to same from opposite sides 
of the building, of sufficient size to furnish the re- 
quired amount of air as above specified. Furnaces 
shall be connected to masonry hot air flues, which 
will carry the heated air up and enter same into 
rooms at a height of at least seven feet six inches 
(7 feet 6 inches) above floor level. In churches, 
heating air from furnaces will be allowed to enter 
into rooms through floor registers, but masonry flues 
must be provided for all school building work. All 
furnace pipes must be wrapped with at least three 
thicknesses of asbestos paper, and must be kept at 
least eight inches (8 inches) away from wood ceiling 
joists, etc., and all wood work must be protected by 
laying one-quarter inch (% inch) thick asbestos 
board over pipes, same being at least twelve inches 
(12 inches) wider than pipes on both sides. All 
floor boxes shall be kept at least one inch (1 inch) 
away from all woodwork, and all these spaces shall 
be lined with one-quarter inch (% inch) asbestos 
board before metal floor box is placed in position. 

Temperature regulating device should be used in 
hot air flues as hereinafter specified. Vertical metal 
hot air flues to carry heated air above the first floor 
shall not be used, but same must be masonry flues. 

Indirect Hot Water or Steam Radiator System. 

Steam or hot water boilers and fuel rooms in con- 



158 



nection with same, shall be located in fireproof 
rooms as hereinafter specified. 

Indirect hot water or steam radiators shall be 
placed in basement fresh air rooms at the base of* 
masonry hot air fines, and shall be properly con- 
nected to same with galvanized iron housing. 

Hot air fines, protecting woodwork, ontside fresh 
air connections, etc., same as above specified for fur- 
nace work, shall be used in connection with indirect 
radiators. 

In indirect radiator systems, enough direct 
radiation can be located in the rooms to do the heat- 
ing, and only enough indirect radiation need be in- 
stalled at the base of flues to furnish the required 
amount of fresh air heated to about seventy-two (72) 
degrees. 

Mechanical Fan Plenum System. 

In connection with a fan plenum system, furnaces 
or steam or hot water boilers can be used, provided, 
the furnaces or boilers together with the fuel rooms 
in connection with the same be located in fireproof 
rooms as hereinafter specified. This system shall be 
so designed with furnaces, or tempering coils and 
blast coils, to furnish heated air, to have cleaning; 
screens, fan plenum chamber, galvanized iron or 
masonry horizontal ducts, masonry hot air flues, 
electric motor, gas or gasoline engine, or a low pres- 
sure steam engine operating on a steam pressure not 
to exceed twenty pounds, to operate fan and such 
other device as is necessary to make this a complete 
working system. All parts and apparatus in eon- 



159 



nection with system to be of ample size so as to make 
a perfectly free and easy working system, and to 
thoroughly heat all portions of the building without* 
forcing. 

A combination direct radiation and fan plenum 
system can be installed, enough direct radiation can 
be placed in the rooms to do the heating, and the fan 
plenum system need only be designed to heat the re- 
quired amount of fresh air to about seventy-two (72) 
degrees. 

No steam boiler carrying over twenty (20) 
pounds of steam pressure shall be located within the 
main walls of any school building or other public 
building. 

No ashes are to be stored in buildings of the 
third class construction, and not more than one 
day's accumulation of ashes shall be stored in the 
basements of buildings of the first and second class 
construction. 

Pipe Covering. 

All steam and hot water main and return piping 
shall be covered with sectional asbestos pipe cover- 
ing. 

Main and return steam piping where used in 
radiation in finished portions of buildings need not 
be covered. All pipes passing through floors, walls, 
etc., shall have metal protecting sleeves or collars 
entirely through the floor, wall, etc., and flanging 
out on both sides for pipes to pass through. 

Ventilation. 

Air Space. — All rooms, etc., shall be of such a 
size as to provide two hundred and fifty (250 cu. ft.) 

160 



cubic feet of air space for every pupil or person 
the rooms are designed to accommodate. 

Hot Air and Vent Flues. — All hot air and vent 
flues thirteen by thirteen inches or smaller in size 
shall be enclosed in four inch (4 inch) brick walls 
and all flues larger in size shall be enclosed in eight 
inch (8 inch) brick walls, these flues being smoothly 
plastered on inside with Portland cement mortar. 
Division walls in flues can be four inch (4 inch) in 
thickness. All flues shall start at ground on sub- 
stantial foundations, and all vent flues shall extend 
up and out above roof, except as below stated. All 
hot air flues shall have arched top back of registers, 
to turn hot air into rooms. 

In gravity work for school buildings, all vent 
flues shall be of such a size as to provide ten square 
(10) inches of flue area for each person the room is 
designed to accommodate. Hot air flues shall be 
figured on the same basis. In gravity work in 
churches, large assembly rooms, etc., the size of vent 
and hot air flues need only be figured on a basis of 
not less than two-thirds (2-3) of the full seating 
capacity of the room. In mechanical fan system, 
ducts and flues shall be figured as follows : 

Air leaving fan to travel at a velocity of not to 
exceed one thousand (1000) feet per minute, in hori- 
zontal ducts not to exceed seven hundred and fifty 
(750) feet per minute, and in vertical flues not to ex- 
ceed five hundred feet (500 feet) per minute. 

Twenty (20) gauge galvanized iron flues enclosed 
with two inches (2 inches) of reinforced concrete, 
will be accepted in place of four inch (4 inch) brick 
walls, and twenty (20) gauge galvanized iron flues 

161 

A 



enclosed with four inches (4 inches) of reinforced 
concrete will be accepted in place of eight inch (8 
inch) brick walls. 

Twenty (20) gauge galvanized iron flues may be 
used in attics of buildings of composite construction, 
to connect to masonry vent flues and run to a cen- 
tral point for exhaust fan connection, provided, a 
weighted fire-door or shut off valve is arranged at 
the top of each masonry vent flue in attic just before 
galvanized iron connection is made to same; this 
door or valve being held by fusible link, so that in 
case of fire traveling up a flue, the link would fuse 
and fire door or valve close off the flue perfectly 
tight. These galvanized iron flues in attic only to be 
used in connection with an exhaust fan connecting 
to same, otherwise masonry flues are to run out 
through roof. 

Registers. 

Register connection to vent flues shall be made 
at floor line, and to hot air flues at least seven feet, 
six inches (7 feet 6 inches) above floor level. 
Registers shall have a free area of at least fifty per 
cent (50 per cent) greater than the area of vent and 
hot air flues. 

Temperature Regulation. 

Either a manually operating, or mechanically 
operating system of temperature control for mixing 
hot and cold air in flues, should be installed in con- 
nection with all of these heating systems. Cold air 
by-pass connections should be made from fresh air 
intakes or rooms, to the hot air flues, and a valve 
should be arranged in flue so that the hot and cold 
air can be mixed in flue to regulate the temperature ; 

162 



this valve should be manually operated by handle 
and dial located in each school room, or by mechani- 
cally operated temperature regulating device. 

Fireproof Furnace or Boiler and Fuel Rooms. 

In new buildings, these rooms should be enclosed 
in at least one foot, one inch (1 foot 1 inch) thick 
masonry or nine inch (9 inch) thick reinforced con- 
crete walls; the ceiling of rooms shall be reinforced 
concrete or standard fireproof hollow arched tile and 
iron beam construction, designed to carry a load of at 
least one hundred (100) pounds to the square foot in 
addition to the weight of the floor itself. All doors 
entering these rooms from remainder of building, 
shall be hinged type, underwriters' approval, two 
and one-half inch (2y 2 inch) thick fire doors, tin 
clad, hung with proper equipment and being normal- 
ly held closed with weight and chain. 

In old buildings, the boiler or furnace and fuel 
rooms, shall be enclosed in same masonry walls and 
should have same fire doors opening into same, and 
the entire ceiling shall be fireproof ed as follows: 
First overlay the entire ceiling with one quarter 
inch (i/4 inch) thick asbestos board, lapped at least 
one and one-half inches at joints; then furr same 
with one and one-half inch (l 1 /^ inch) high metal 
furring spaced twelve inches (12 inches) on centers; 
then lath with metal lath and heavily plaster with 
asbestos and Portland cement plaster. 

All boiler and fuel rooms shall be so arranged 
in basement that persons other than the janitor will 
not have access thereto or will not have to pass 
through same to get from one portion of the base- 
ment to the other. 

163 



STANDARD CODE OF THE BOSTON SCHOOL 
HOUSE COMMISSION. 

General Information for First Class Construction. 
Elementary Schools. 

School Rooms.— (1) Size will be 23 by 29 for 

elementary grades and not less than 12 feet in clear. 
Modification allowable only after consultation with 
the Board. A building having no grades above IV, 
with no desk larger than 21 inches, might have rooms 
22 by 28, but the standard size gives the extra space 
wanted for modern methods. Desks should be laid 
out on the preliminary plans. .(See drawing.) This 
drawing should give 18-inch, 21-inch and 23-inch 
desks, laid out in a 23 by 29 room. The School Com- 
mittee advise, and this Board has adopted, the policy 
of having a small portion of the rooms in a building, 
perhaps 10 or 20 per cent, of a size that will seat 50, 
i. e., 23 feet by 32 feet. Every class-room shall be 
consecutively numbered on the plans to designate it. 
These numbers to be for the doors, as noted below, 
and for the annunciator. Other rooms that ap- 
pear on the annunciator to be named on the plans, as 
assembly hall, teachers' or master's room, cooking- 
room, manual training room. The kindergarten shall 
be counted as a class-room. In high schools, both 
class and recitation rooms to be numbered, other 
rooms named. 

(2.) Windows will be on the long side for left- 
hand lighting. The glass, measured inside the sash, 
shall contain not less than 1-5 of floor area, about 135 

165 



3 
square feet for a room 23 feet wide;* neither double 
run of sash nor double glazing will be required, but 
a dustproof metal weather strip; the head square 
and close to the ceiling ; the sill about 2 feet 6 inches 
from the floor; the windows divided with muntins, 
no large sheets of glass. Finished with plastered 
jamb, no architrave, metal corner bead. 

(3.) Doors.— One to corridor, 3 feet 6 inches by 
7 feet, partly glazed, to open out, placed preferably 
near the teacher's end; brass-plated steel butts, 4- 
lever mortise lock, master keyed; cast brass knobs, 
marble thresholds to corridors. Doors to have 2-inch, 
plain brass numbers, and cardholders 3% inches by 
5 inches, and hooks to hold open. 

(4.) Floors will be Georgia rift pine or maple. 

(5.) Walls will be painted burlap up to top of 
blackboards, or of tack boards, and above this plas- 
ter, tinted in water color,— a warm gray green or buff 
gives the best results,— the blackboards, 4 feet high, 
2 feet 2 inches from floor in kindergarten, 2 feet 4 
inches to 2 feet 6 inches to Grade IV, and 2 feet 8 
inches in Grades V, to VIII. Behind the teacher and 
on the long side. These will be of best black slate, 
% inch thick. At end, in place of blackboard, pine 
sheathing with burlap stretched over it for a tack 
board, to extend from base to the molding at top of 
blackboards. In lower grades a rack or tack board 
for holding cards is required above the blackboard. 
A picture molding at top of burlap, and also near 
ceiling in all rooms. (See drawings.) 

*It is evident 1hat if this area of glass is requisite to light 
a room in a building with free space about it, it is inadequate 
for a room in a building on a narrow street. Under exceptional- 
ly free conditions, with no obstructions to the direct light from 
the sky, it is possible that the area of glass might be re- 
duced, but it appears to be no more than enough for the ordi- 
nary conditions of the new buildings, and should be increased, 
if possible. 

166 



(6.) Ceilings will be level, plaster tinted a light 
cream color. 

(7.) Heating and Ventilation, — The inlet for 
heat above 5 square feet, the outlet for- ventilation 
about 5 square feet. 

(9.) Bookcase.— Provide a bookcase in any con- 
venient position, capable of containing 300 octavo 
volumes (600 volumes in bookcases for upper grades) ; 
upper doors fitted with pin tumbler locks and latch 
and knob; drawers fitted with pin tumbler lock and 
small brass knobs. Lower doors to have pin tumbler 
locks; same lock in each bookcase; all bookcase locks 
master keyed. (See drawing.) Special equipment 
for care of books where school is held day and even- 
ing is described on page 20, Report 1908. 

(10.) Map Supports.— Provide one map support 
for each class-room in Grades IV, V, VI, VII, and 
VIII, preferably behind the teacher's desk or oppo- 
site the windows. 

(11.) Teacher's Closet.— Provide a small closet 
for teacher's coat and hat, preferably opening from 
the class-room, but allowable from the wardrobe. 

Fresh Air Rooms. — The School committee is re- 
sponding to the more general demand for fresh-air 
rooms for children who are anaemic or of tubercular 
tendencies. At present all that the Board is advis- 
ing to meet this new demand is that a sunny room, 
preferable a sunny corner room, be chosen for this 
work, and that the windows on one or on two sides 
be made casement to open out, instead of double 
hung ; and that the heat be largely direct, so that the 
temperature can be quickly raised if necessary when 



167 



the windows are closed. Otherwise these rooms will 
be the same as other class-rooms. 

Wardrobes. — A (1) Size. — Wardrobes will ad- 
join school-rooms and be from 4 feet 6 inches to 5 
feet wide. 

(2 and 3.) — Windoivs and Doors. — Outside light, 
two doors, both connecting with school-room, and not 
to corridor, and having no thresholds. Doors, double 
swung, 2 feet 6 inches wide, brass double acting butts, 
foot and hand plates, hook or adjustable stops to hold 
open, ventilation under door farthest from vent. 

(4.) Floors.— Terazzo, with granolithic border 
and base. 

(5.) Walls.— Painted burlap up to hook rail; 
Poles on brass-plated iron brackets with hooks under 
and pins over, 44 in number ; umbrella clips and drip 
gutter below. (See drawing.) Walls above, piaster, 
tinted. Height of lower pole, kindergarten, 30 inches 
from floor; lower grades, 36 inches to 40 inches; up- 
per grades, 44 inches, 48 inches and 52 inches; dis- 
tance between poles, 8 inches for elementary, 12 inches 
for high schools. Pins and hooks, 8 inches to 12 
inches on centers for elementary and 16 inches to 18 
inches for high. 

(6.) Ceiling.— Plaster, untinted. 

(7.) Light.— One lamp. Ceiling outlets, elec- 
tric. Switch in class-room. 

(8.) Heating and Ventilation.— Heating, direct. 
Ventilation, direct, 1 2-3 square feet area cross sec- 
tion. 

Wardrobes. — B. The so-called Chicago type has 
been studied in a model for one building, but has not 
yet been tested in practice. It is a recess 20 inches 

168 



deep and about 14 feet long, equipped with the stand- 
ard pole and 44 hooks. The floor is of terazzo, the 
ceiling is at about 7 feet above the floor. The doors 
are hung like sash, to slide up, are framed flush and 
covered with burlap for a tack-board. The ventila- 
tor is independent of the room vent, but there is no 
heat except what is drawn in from the room at the 
bottom. 

Corridors and Vestibules. (1.) Sizes — Not less 
than 8 feet wide for four rooms on a floor; not less 
than 10 feet for over four rooms, governed by length, 
access to stairs, etc. 

(2.) Windows. — Outside light essential. 

(3.) Doors.— Main outer doors to open out, 
heavy butts, standard, master keyed, school lock; 
door check; heavy hooks to hold open. Vestibule 
doors open out, heavy butts, pulls, push plates, hooks 
to hold open, door checks, no locks. Outer doors to 
basement open out, and fitted with standard latch 
lock. Other hardware as above. 

(4.) Floors.— Terazzo divided into areas not to 
exceed 80 square feet, by slate strips, or linoleum on 
a cemenf surf ace. 

(5 and 6.) Walls and Ceilings.— A light glazed 
brick, untinted walls and ceilings. Put picture mold- 
ing at ceiling in corridors. 

(7.) Light. — Ceiling or short pendant fixtures 
(electric) 32 candle-power each, also gas for emer- 
gency in corridors, on stairs, and in vestibules. 

(8.) Heating and Ventilation. — Heat direct, sup- 
plemented by foot warmers on first floor. Ventila- 
tion where possible. 

169 



(9.) Sinks and Closets. — On each floor above 
the first one or two 4-foot sinks, and emergency clos- 
ets, with water-closet, one for boys and one for girls. 

Staircases. — (1.) Number and Arrangement. — 
Determined by the Board, but fireproof construction 
in all cases, and not over 5 feet wide. 

(2.) Material.— The treads, North River stone 
on iron string, or concrete construction with grano- 
lithic surface. Rails of a simple pattern, easily 
cleaned; wall rails are not wanted. 

(3.) Steps. About 6% or 7 inches by 10. Rail 
not less than 2 feet 8 inches on runs and 3 feet on 
landings. 

Sanitaries. — (1) Size. — General toilet-rooms in 
basement, in size approximating space for 2.25 wa- 
ter-closets for each school-room, .75 boys, 1.5 girls, 
and 33 inches of urinal for every school-room, ar- 
ranged for convenient supervision and circulation.* 
Slate sinks, length from 10 inches per class-room in 
small buildings to 6 inches per class-room in large 
buildings located preferably in the play-rooms. The 
above refers to mixed schools. 

(2.) Windows. — Ample outside light; glazed 
where exposed to view outside with factory ribbed 
glass. To have wire guards. 

(3.) Doors.— The doors arranged "in" and 
"out," with spring or door check and stout brass 
hooks to hold open; glazed with ribbed glass; half 
doors to water-closets, except where ordered omitted. 

* Inquiries have been addressed to principals of all schools 
where water-closets and urinals have been installed on this 
basis, and the consensus of opinion appears to be that the 
number cannot be reduced without inconvenience, but that it is 
satisfactory as it stands. 

170 



(4.) Floors.— Asphalt. Boys' drained to urinal, 
girls ' to floor wash. 

(5.) Walls.— Salt-glazed brick or other non- 
porous, inexpensive surface, 7 feet high; above, brick 
painted. 

(6.) Ceiling. — Untinted plaster or white-washed 
concrete. No basement ceiling need be furred level. 

(7.) Light.— Ceiling or short pendant electric 
fixtures. 

(8.) Heat and Ventilation. — Heat direct. "Ven- 
tilation through water-closets and space back of uri- 
nals, allow 10 square inches local vent for each 
water-closet and 8 square inches for each lineal 
foot of urinal. 

Masters' and Teachers' Rooms. — (1.) In each 
school of the upper grades a room of about 240 
square feet for the master, with a water-closet and 
bowl and a book-closet adjoining. This room should 
be near the center of the building, i. e., on the 
second floor in a three story building. In all schools 
a room or rooms for teachers, averaging about 300 
square feet for ten teachers, with one water-closet 
and bowl for each ten. Doors to be clearly marked 
"Master" or "Teachers" in brass letters. 

(2.) Where men as well as women are teachers, 
a separate room with toilet accommodations for men. 

(3.) Opportunity in teachers' rooms for warm- 
ing luncheon, either gas or electric. 

Play-Rooms. — (1.) All free basement space to be 
arranged as play-rooms for boys and girls. Salt- 
glazed brick, 7 feet high, and painted or whitewash- 
ed brick or stone walls above. Granolithic floors 



171 



drained to floor washes, plaster ceilings or white- 
washed concrete. Basement doors and windows to 
have wire guards in channel iron frames; guards to 
be hinged and padlocked. 

Playgrounds. — Playgrounds to have boundary 
fences and to be paved for the play-yards, coal and 
ash teams. Borders to be planted. 

Plumbing Fixtures. — (1.) Water-closets. — The 
basement water-closets for elementary schools are 
short hopper closets; elsewhere, a heavy washdown 
closet. (See drawing.) 

(2.) Slate partitions. — Any sound, close-grained 
slate, black, green or purple, supported at ends with 
iron pipe about 8 feet high, tied together and to the 
wall, to which doors are hung. (See drawing.) 

(3.) Urinals.— The urinals will be of slate, 
floor slab, trough and back, with partitions, flushed 
automatically, through % inch perforated pipe, with 
cold water; vented at bottom, into space behind. 
(See drawing.) 

(4.) Sinks of black slate, self-closing cocks, set 
15 inches on centers, and cup-hooks at each side of 
cocks, and jet drinking fountains, in the external 
angles. A sink is desired for electrician unless there 
is one near by. 

(5.) Floor Washes in sanitaries and playrooms 
as already mentioned. (See drawing.) 

(6.) Piping. — (a.) Cast iron must be laid on 
good footing in basement, clean-outs at every 
change of direction. Soils and vents exposed as far 
as possible, no asphaltum, but oil-tested, red lead 
and three coats of paint. 

172 



(&.) Supplies.— Exposed as far as possible; 
where covered may be plain brass, elsewhere polish- 
ed brass; no nickel-plate. Hot water for janitor's 
use in basement, cooking-room, and for master's and 
teachers' rooms and emergency toilets. Supply from 
boiler and from summer boiler, if any, or from an 
independent hot-water heater. 

(c.) Fire Lines.— In buildings over three 
stories high, one or more lines of 3-inch pipe if re- 
quested by the Board. 

Special Rooms. 
Assembly Halls. — (1.) Assembly halls should 
accommodate from 400 to 800. It is not considered 
necessary to seat the full number of pupils in schools 
of greater capacity. The floor to be level and of 
wood like class-rooms. The windows to be fitted 
with rebated moldings to take black shades, and so 
designed as to make the operation of shades practi- 
cal and simple. The platform should be capable of 
accommodating one, or, in the large schools, two 
classes, and should have removable stepped plat- 
forms of wood to take the benches. Galleries may be 
used where the hall is two stories in height. Ante- 
rooms near the platform are desirable, and a con- 
nection from adjoining class-rooms to the anterooms 
or directly to the platform. A dignified architect- 
ural treatment of the walls, and a studied color 
scheme for walls and ceiling is expected. The light- 
ing, acoustics and exits should be such as belong to a 
small lecture hall. Artificial lighting to be under 
control from at least two points, one of which must 
be near an exit. Electric outlet for 30 ampere pro- 



173 



3 
jection lantern, 25 feet from curtain. Provide re- 
cess in ceiling over platform for spring rolled cur- 
tain 13 feet long. 

Manual Training Rooms. — (1.) Size. — Room gen- 
erally located in basement, should be approxi- 
mately 900-1,000 square feet, preferably a corner 
room, and the larger of the two allowed sizes of 
rooms; and arrangement, shown by drawing, for 
number of benches there given, 28.* 

(2.) Light.— The windows should be as near 
full length as possible, and on two sides. Artificial 
light in chain pendant electric fixtures, one light to 
every four benches. 

13.) Floors.— Of wood. 

(4.) Walls.— A basement room should be finish- 
ed as a shop; salt-glazed brick up to 7 feet where 
exposed, and above black board space of about 15 
running feet, 4 feet high, and above this brick walls 
whitewashed. If above basement, finished as a class- 
room. 

(5.) Ceilings.— Like basement. 

(6.) Heating and Ventilation.— The same as in 
class-rooms. 

(7.) Fittings.— (a.) Stock-room.— Stock-room 
should contain at least 80 square feet, preferably 
long and narrow. Eighteen-inch shelves should run 
around the room, 5 feet 6 inches and 6 feet from the 
floor. 

(b.) Wardrobes. — Wall space for 30 double 
coat and hat hooks, in a separate room. 

*In elementary schools for boys only, 25 is sufficient, as this 
would always take half a class. 

174 



(c.) Teachers' Closet.— Teachers ' closet should 
be large enough to be used also for storage of finish- 
ed work, and should be fitted with all shelving pos- 
sible, as well as with the customary coat hooks. An 
area of 40 square feet is adequate. 

(d.) Bookcases.— Like those in class-rooms, 150 
capacity. 

(e.) Work-rack.— About 28 feet long, made in 
sections, 6 feet 6 inches high, and 2 feet deep. The 
length is to take 27 compartments (equaling the 
number of benches) and the height the number of 
divisions that use the room (two each day, five days, 
outside limit). Compartments to have numbers 
painted. (For all of these see drawings.) 

(/.) Sink. — A 3-foot porcelain enameled iron 
sink, with hot and cold water. 

{ (g.) Furniture. — (Not included in the building 
contract.) The furniture comprises 28 benches and 
stools, 4 display frames about 6 feet long and 30 
inches wide, demonstration steps and guard rail, 
teacher's desk, table 4 feet by 2y 2 feet with un- 
finished top, 1 desk chair and 2 common chairs. (See 
drawing.) Lay these out on preliminary drawings. 

Cooking-Room. — (1.) Size. — Should have an 
area of 900-1,000 square feet, preferably a corner 
room on top floor but generally in basement, and the 
larger of the two allowed sizes of room, and ar- 
ranged for 28 stations. 

(2.) Light.— Windows as in a class-room, if 
located in a corner, from two sides. Artificial light 
as in a class-room. 



175 



(3.) Walls.— Above basement, similar to school- 
rooms, blackboards, 4 by 10 feet, back of teacher's 
desk. "Walls painted in oils. A basement room may 
have salt-glazed brick walls up to 7 feet and painted 
brick above. (See drawings.) 

(4.) Floors.— The floor linoleum, on cement, ex- 
cept space occupied by ranges, which is tiled. 

(5.) Ceilings.— Ceilings like basement, or if 
above basement like class-rooms. 

(6.) Heat and Ventilation.— hess heat is re- 
quired than in a class-room, but the ventilation 
should be the same, with additional vent from the 
demonstration ranges. 

(7.) Fittings.— (a.) Wardrobes.— Provision for 
28 pupils, double coat and hat hooks in separate 
lighted closet, and small teacher's closet. 

(6) Work benches, accommodating 28 pupils, 
fitted with compartment for utensils, bread-board, 
etc., a Bunsen burner with a hinged iron grill over 
it, set on aluminum plates at each station; benches 
arranged in the form of ellipse, or oblong with ac- 
cess to center from two sides ; top of pine 26 inches 
wide; open underneath and supported on pipe 
standards. One section detached and fitted as a 
demonstration bench; a clear space of 4 feet all 
around. Dining table (furnished under another con- 
tract) is to be set in center. (See drawings.) Lay 
these out on preliminary drawings and include in 
final drawings and contract. 

(c.) Dresser. — Ten feet long, in 3 sections, 4 
adjustable shelves and glazed sliding, or hinged, 
doors at top ; one set of 3 drawers and 2 cupboards 



176 



on lower part. A shelf should be put in each cup- 
board about 12 inches from top. 

(d.) Fuel-box. — In 2 compartments, each about 
24 inches square and 30 inches deep, with hinged 
lids ; small shelf in one section. Accommodations in 
the main coal-room for a supply of range coal and 
kindling wood. 

(el) Bookcase.— Similar to those provided in 
class-rooms. 

(/.) Sink.— Soapstone, 5 feet long; 2 cold and 
2 hot water cocks ; soapstone drip shelves, 24 inches 
long, at each end of sink, and a small sink about 2 
feet long, with 1 hot and 1 cold water cock. Sinks 
should be near ranges. 

(g.) Hot-water Supply.— (See instructions in 
plumbing.) 

(h.) Coal and Gas Ranges.— A six-hole coal 
range and a similar gas range, with hood provided 
and set on a hearth previously mentioned. 

(i.) Refrigerator. —Will be a part of the fur- 
niture. Furnished under another contract. 

Kindergarten. — (1.) Size. — The rooms can be 
contained in the space of a class-room and wardrobe, 
but a slightly larger area, 800 to 900 square feet, is 
desirable, and preferably the larger of the two al- 
lowed sizes of room. They comprise a large room, a 
small room, a supply closet, a wardrobe and a water- 
closet. The large room should take a 16-foot circle, 
regulation lines painted on the floor, with at least 4 
feet all around it. The small room, about 200 square 
feet. 



177 



(2.) Light.— Windows should be as in a class- 
room, if on a corner, on both sides. Exposure should 
be sunny. Artificial light of the class-room type, 
arranged for the different rooms. 

(3.) Doors. — Door to corridor as in class-rooms. 
"Wide doors should open from small room into large 
room. 

(1.) Floors. — Linoleum cemented on to concrete 
surface, with painted lines as above. 

(5.) Walls.— As in class-rooms, with blackboard 
as in lower grades. 

(6.) Ceilings.— As in class-rooms. 

(7.) Heat and Ventilation.— As in class-rooms. 

(8.) Fittings.— (a.) Wardrobe.— Hooks for 60 
arranged as in ordinary wardrobes. 

(&.) Teachers' Closet.— For clothing of two or 
three teachers. 

(c.) Toilet-room— Immediately adjoining, with 
low-down seat and bowl or sink. 

(d.) Bookcase.— As in lower grades. 

Nurse's Room.— (1.) Size.— From 200 to 400 
square feet, according to size of school. 

(2.) Windows.— Outside light as in class-rooms. 

(3.) Shades.— Set to roll from window-sill up- 
ward. Not in building contract. 

(4.) Doors.— One door to corridor, as in class- 
rooms, marked " Nurse's room." 

(5.) Walls.— Upper two-thirds plaster, smooth 
finish, round corners, painted with light green oil 
paint. Lower one-third to floor, glazed white tile. 



178 



(6.) Floor.— Terazzo, like corridors. 

(7.) Heat and Ventilation. — As in class-rooms. 

(8.) Light. —Pendant electrolier with special 
shade. Extra socket on body of fixture for hand 
portable. 

(9.) Nurse's Closet far Supplies.— Size, 3 by 4; 
one shelf; 6 hooks for clothing. 

(10.) Bath Tub.— Five-foot porcelain enameled 
iron, hot and cold water, where requested by Super- 
intendent of Nurses. 

(11.) Bowl.— Enameled iron, hot and cold water 
faucets to turn by foot pressure, i. e., hospital pat- 
tern. Hot water must be available all the year. 

(12.) Stove and Clock.— Gas or electric heater 
as in teachers' rooms, and a secondary clock. 

(13.) Fittings.— (Not in building contract.) (a.) 
Cabinet.— Oak finish, medical cabinet, adopted as 
standard by Schoolhouse Commission. (&.) Stool. 
— White enamel revolving stool. (Not in building 
contract.) (c.) Table.— Dressing table, white- 
enamel frame, glass top and shelf ; size 16 by 20, rub- 
ber crutch tips, (d.) Filing Case for Nurse's Rec- 
ords. — Oak finish, to hold 1,000 cards, 4 by 6; lock 
and key; guide cards, (e.) Writing Table.— Oak 
finish, with drawer and lock; size, 20 by 30. "(/.) 
Chair.— Oak to match table, (g.) Couch.— Plat 
frame oak, canvas adjustable top. (h.) Mirror — 
Size 2% by 3, set over bowl. 

High Schools. 

Class-Rooms and Recitations-Rooms. — (1.) High 
school class-rooms are laid out for classes of thirty- 

179 



six or forty-two, generally the latter. A room, 26 
feet by 32 feet, will accommodate forty-two high 
school desks. The larger class-rooms are to accom- 
modate from sixty to eighty pupils ; the larger num- 
ber can be accommodated in a room 33 feet 8 inches 
by 43 feet. Eecitation-rooms, which to a certain ex- 
tent will be used also as class-rooms, should be about 
16 by 26. These rooms, if equipped with continuous 
desks and seats as in a lecture-room, or with double 
desks, such as are to be used in the Charlestown 
High, would accommodate about thirty pupils each. 
Lay out desks in one room of each type on prelimi- 
nary plans. 

Assembly Hall. — (1.) For a high school would 
not differ materially from that already described for 
elementary schools. 

Masters' and Teachers' Rooms. — (1.) For ac- 
commodation of the principal there should be an 
outer office, that is, a waiting-room or reception- 
room, and an inner office; and rooms for both men 
and women teachers, which might well be concen- 
trated in the neighborhood of the reception-room and 
the principal's room. The School Committee now 
have under consideration a change in the organiza- 
tion of high school teachers, which may require a 
modification of the arrangement of the offices. 

Chemistry.— (1.) The Boom in General Be- 
quired.— Laboratory, separate from lecture-room, 
may be used as recitation-room, but better to use lec- 
ture-room and keep laboratory free from desks and 
demonstration table. Lecture-room, separate from 
laboratory, but easy of access, may be used for re- 

130 



citation ; in that case should have facilities for dem- 
onstration. Combined lecture-room for physics and 
chemistry admissible. Three rooms for administra- 
tive purposes, store-room for dry chemicals and ap- 
paratus, room for storage of liquid chemicals and 
preparation of reagents, which may also be used as 
a teacher's laboratory and an office. The total area 
of the laboratory and administration rooms should 
be about 1,200 square feet, and of the lecture room 
about 600 square feet. 

Chemical Laboratory. — (1.) Size. — Should ac- 
commodate a class of forty to fifty pupils, with ap- 
paratus. Accommodation for three such classes. 

(2.) Light.— On two sides. 

(3.) Heating and Ventilation. — On same basis as 
for class-rooms, but removal of gases should also be 
provided for by a hood, each compartment of which 
should be ventilated by 9-inch hole at top, venting 
into elbow or T of drain pipe, thence connected by 
drain pipe into main flue, in which should be a fan 
operated by a motor. 

(4.) Walls and Ceiling.— Walls of brick ideal, 
but not generally feasible, except on outside walls; 
plaster walls painted in oils and ceiling of plaster, 
covered with water-resisting surface containing no 
lead. All woodwork to have natural finish, except 
tops of desks. 

(5.) Flaor.— Preferably of concrete; may be of 
hardwood in narrow strips, filled in by asphalt; 
should slope very slightly between desks, interspaces 
again trending to common corner, which may be 
drained. 



18 L 



(6.) Equipment.— Working desks at right an- 
gles to greater length of room, in sections back to 
back between windows; sections movable when top 
is removed. Each section 21 feet to 24 feet 6 inches 
long, 2 feet wide, 3 feet to 3 feet 2 inches in height. 
Distance between double sections about 5 feet, same 
distance at least between ends of sections and hood, 
which should be opposite longer line of windows and 
at right angles to direction of desk sections. Other 
ends of section near enough to wall to allow for 
drain at right angles to sections and under windows. 
Desks to be of ash or any durable wood, natural 
finish. Top of narrow pine strips, treated with 
aniline black and waterproof lead finish. Individual 
desks provided with 3 lockers and 3 sets of drawers 
each, each set of drawers operated by bar from 
locker, combination lock to fasten locker. Each 
double section of desks provided with soapstone 
sink, placed between sections and flush with section 
top, which should slope slightly to sink.* Sink 8 
inches at least wide, and should begin within 1 foot 
of the end toward hood, depth here to be 6 inches, 
running nearly to other end, where depth should be 
8 inches. Each pupil to have working space of 3 
feet 6 inches by 1 foot 8 inches. Each double sec- 
tion of desks provided with shelf for reagents, run- 
ning length of desk, 10 inches to 12 inches above 
desk, supported by metal standards at suitable in- 
tervals, of white wood, 1% inches thick, 9 inches 
wide, natural finish, covered with glass plates, Vi 
inch thick, 9 inches wide, suitable lengths, clamped 

*Individual sinks are preferred by the teachers, although the 
long trough is apparently adequate for teaching elementary 
chemistry, and is less expensive. 

182 



to wooden shelf with as few clamps as possible. 
Wooden shelf at free end of each section, 1 inch to 
iy 2 inches thick, 3 feet to 4 feet long, not over 1 
foot 3 inches wide, height of 2 feet 8 inches to 2 feet 
10 inches, for holding blast lamps, reagent jars, etc. 
Finish off top of shelf in aniline black. Floor space 
under second row of windows taken up with line of 
extra desks, built like sections, furnished in similar 
way, but without necessarily a drain, to be used for 
emergency or general utility. Wall space not other- 
wise occupied may be used for shelves or cabinets. 
Fixed slate blackboards at end opposite second set of 
windows, and parallel to desk sections, sliding slate 
blackboards above hood. Liquid waste may be 
thrown into desk sink, dry waste into earthern jars. 
Hood should run at right angles to desk sections. 
and along wall opposite free ends of sections. 
In the construction of hood, protection against fire 
should be considered. Should be built against brick 
wall. Floor of hoods to be of slate ; wood, inside and 
outside, to be finished natural. Space divided into 
3 or 4 compartments, closed by sliding windows. 
Space against wall not occupied by hood for general 
link. 

(7.) Gas.— Lead from gas main at free end of 
center of double desk sections, branch into 2 leads 
along back of each section. Take-offs between each 
working desk space in form of pillar with two %- 
inch cocks, at each end desk a single cock. Two %- 
inch gas nipples at each side of each compartment of 
hood. Cocks of these outside of hood. Wall desk 
fitted with single gas taps at intervals of 2 feet. 



183 



(8.) Water.— Lead from water main at free end 
of center of double desk sections. Size, large enough 
to fill section sink rapidly. Lead of ordinary size 
along length of section, underside of shelf, take-off 
at free end of section to which blast and suction 
pump may be attached. At junction of each four 
working desk spaces take-off, carrying two valves 
with hose bibb delivery %-inch, the two valves or 
cocks facing opposite sides. Suction pump attached 
to these bibbs if desired. 

(9.) Drains. — Section desk sink to have open 
drain and mercury arrester, into which should be 
set movable concave netting of wide mesh to arrest 
larger solid matter. Main desk drain at right angles 
to sections along and under windows, between win- 
dows and sections, should be in form of wooden 
trough, in sections dovetailed from 6 inches to 8 
inches inside diameter and equally deep, covererj 
with asphalt paint or filling; may be supported on 
brackets against wall and left open, or covered and 
provided with movable top. Into this drain will drip 
the lead pipes coming from section sink. Slate floor 
of each hood compartment should deepen slightly in 
center, where there should be a hole 1 inch in di- 
ameter, into which is fitted short lead drain pipe, 
closed by perforated plug; drain pipes to be con- 
nected with sloping drain pipe, open or closed, run- 
ning toward and delivering into general sink. 

(10.) Electricity .— Current of electricity on 
section desks need not exceed ten volts, may be sup- 
plied from source common to physical and chemical 



184 



side. Plugs between each working space placed 
under desk top on frame. 

Lecture and Recitation Room. — (1.) Size. — Area 
to depend on number of seatings required or number 
of pupils in classes ; should be large enough for tw- 
classes, and should occupy a position between the 
laboratories for physics and chemistry. 

(2.) Light. — As much glass area as class-room, 
preferably from left. Fit windows and other open- 
ings admitting light with dark curtains as specified 
under Assembly Hail. Electric lighting from the 
top, controlled at point convenient to demonstration 
table. 

(3.) Floor stepped up in fireproof construction 
and finished in wood, like floor. 

(4.) Heating and Ventilation.— As for class 
rooms, with extra ventilation to remove fumes. 
Space at left end of desk provided with register and 
flue of at least 10 inches diameter, to afford means of 
down draught. Flue carried under floor to nearest 
wall, flue and draught actuated by motor, if not 
sufficient. 

(5.) Equipment.— Demonstration table, not less 
than 12 feet long, not more than 3 feet nor less than 
30 inches wide, height 32 inches. Placed 4 feet dis- 
tant from wall, material same as that of room, top 
made of pine plank and and finished like chemical 
laboratory desks. Pneumatic sink at right hand of 
desk, of soapstone in 2 depths. Not to exceed 30 
inches long, 20 inches wide. Depth, 4 inches to 6 
inches minimum; 16 inches to 18 inches maximum. 
Length of minimum depth not to exceed 60 per cent 

185 



of total length. Sink to be depressed in table and 
provided with flush cover. Sink to have screened 
drain with mercury trap and overflow. Supply hot 
and cold water under reduced pressure and cold 
water under street pressure for quick filling, 2 goose- 
necks with %-inch hose bibbs, to one of which com- 
bined blast and suction pump may be attached: 
steam supply direct from boiler main with a by-pass 
to summer boiler; supply gas air suction, and gas 
taps not exceeding 6 in number. Over demonstration 
table, secured to ceiling, provide a plank with heavy 
screw hooks. Behind lecture table provide sliding 
blackboards of not less than 50 square feet, and a 
canvas curtain on heavy spring roller for attaching 
charts. Drawers and closets for lesser lecture ap- 
paratus and chemicals in body of table, wall on 
either side provided with shelves for reagent bottles 
under glass, and side wall provided with cabinets 
for larger pieces of permanent apparatus, if there is 
no special room for this. Lifting seats with desk for 
taking notes arranged on platforms, so that the suc- 
cessive tiers will rise one above the other to insure 
an unobstructed view of demonstration table. (See 
drawing.) 

(6.) Electricity.— Provide three (3) forms of 
current, viz., one circuit for direct current at 110 
volts, 30 amperes, and one circuit for 5 to 20 volts, 
50 amperes, and one circuit for alternating current 
at 110 volts, 30 amperes. Regulating rheostat for 
the 5 to 20 volt direct current to be located con- 
veniently to table. A 50-ampere ammeter and a 125- 
volt volt-meter, both with extra large illuminated 



186 



dials, mounted on swing brackets in full view of class 
and instructor; suitable means for switching am- 
meter and voltmeter to either circuit. Terminate 
circuits in nonreversible push plug receptacles. A 
projection lantern, and receptacles for same, at end 
of table and at rear of room. Lantern screen on 
spring roller at side of room, width of screen usually 
12 feet, but dependent on distance and lenses used. 

Administrative Facilities. — (1.) Apparatus Store- 
room. — Should give ample space for storage of extra 
and reverse apparatus and original packages of 
stock chemicals. These should be kept in dust-proof 
cabinets with glass doors and in drawers. 

(2.) T reparation-room. — This should adjoin the 
above. Primarily for storage of liquid chemicals in 
bulk and preparation of liquid reagents, and stor- 
age of supply bottles, also fitted for teacher's 
laboratory. Should have wide center table with gas 
in center, working desks, with drawers and closets 
along two sides, also gas, water, sink, blast, suction, 
steam and electricity. Shelves along desks for 
storage of liquid chemicals, supply bottles and 
smaller reagent bottles. An adequate hood should 
be provided. 

(3.) Office and Balance Room.— Adjoining store- 
room and preparation-room should be small room to 
contain desk, book shelves, table and a good grade 
balance. 

Physical Laboratory. — (1.) Size. — In a space 
about 30 by 40 feet. A laboratory, apparatus-room 
and shop. 



187 



(2.) Light. — The same basis as for class-rooms, 
one wall having as direct a southern exposure as 
possible for porte lumiere studies. Artificial light- 
as in a class-room Dark curtains in addition to 
regular shades for darkening room. Windows and 
all openings admitting light fitted as specified under 
Assembly Hall. 

(3.) Heating and Ventilation.— On same general 
basis as for class-rooms. 

(4.) Equipment.— Small laboratory tables to ac- 
commodate two or four pupils at each, built of hard 
wood, white pine tops, fitted with 4 drawers, sup- 
ports and adjustable cross-bar. Wall tables around 
room on sides where there are windows, with one or 
two shallow drawers under, but not deep enough to 
interfere with comfort of pupil. Soapstone drip 
sinks with cold water to be provided at these tables, 
one to every six or eight pupils. Instructor's table, 
fitted with hot and cold water, Richards' pump, 
numerous cupboards and drawers of various depths 
and widths. Two-inch plank bolted to ceiling over 
this table, with space of 2 or 3 inches between plank 
and ceiling for attachment of pendulums and other 
apparatus. Provide electric outlet for stereopticon 
and screen for same. 

(5.) Furniture.— Provide adjustable stools for 
all the tables and a sufficient number of tablet arm 
chairs to accommodate the entire division during 
demonstration exercises. Chairs to be placed in 
rectangle formed by pupils' tables and demonstra- 
tion table. These are not in building contract, but to 
be laid out on preliminary plans. 

188 



(6.) Electricity.— One outlet for direct current 
at 110 volts E. M. F. and 30-ampere capacity. One 
outlet for direct current at low voltage with regu- 
lator conveniently located. One outlet for alternat- 
ing current at 110 volts E. M. F. and 30-ampere 
capacity. One outlet for each kind of current at 
demonstration table, to be single pole push plugs 
instead of binding posts. Series and multiple con- 
nections at each pupil's table. Switch in laboratory 
to cut out pupils' tables. 

(7.) Gas.— Pupils' tables to be equipped with 
gas, 4 cocks to each table. "Wall tables to be equip- 
ped with gas. Demonstration table to be provided 
with gas. 

(8.) Bulletin Board.— 25 to 50 square feet of 
bulletin board, covered with burlap, secured at 
edges, but not glued on like wall paper. 

(9.) Blackboards. — As much blackboard space 
as possible. Sliding blackboards back of demonstra- 
tion tables. 

Apparatus Rooms. — (1.) Size. — One large or 
several small rooms, to open directly out of labor- 
atory, and connected with lecture-room. 

(2.) Equipment.— To be fitted with dust-tight 
cases with adjustable shelves and sliding glass doors, 
7 feet high; cabinets of drawers of various widths 
and depths, mostly narrow and shallow. Some of 
these cases may be in the laboratory if there is suffi- 
cient wall space. A small sink and hood should be 
provided. 



189 



:>. 

Shop. — (1.) A small shop is desirable, though 
not absolutely necessary. This should be equipped 
with work bench, power lathe, belted to motor 
generator, and shelving for tools and stock, and may 
be set up in apparatus-room. 

Botanical and Zoological Laboratory. — (1.) Size. 
In a space about 30 by 40 feet. Laboratory and ap- 
paratus-room. 

(2.) Light.— Windows the same as for class- 
rooms, one wall with southern exposure. Artificial 
light as in class-rooms. 

(3.) Equipment. — (a.) Twenty-one pupils' 
tables, 54 inches by 24 inches by 30 inches high, each 
to accommodate two pupils, to have plate glass tops, 

(&.) Soapstone sink, 72 inches by 30 inches, 10 
inches deep, accessible on all sides. Supply with 
cold water, about 8 bibbs and 2 hose bibb cocks. 

(c.) One aquarium, 30 inches long, 20 inches 
wide and 20 inches high, with supply, gooseneck 
cock with aspirator and standing waste. 

(d.) Ice chest, 36 inches by 24 inches. 

'(e.) Cases built wherever practicable. Three 
sections to contain 42 pigeonholes, 3 inches by 3 
inches by 8 inches, for storage of instruments. A 
liberal supply of cases to contain drawers and cup- 
boards in lower compartment, and shelves above for 
exhibition of specimens, storage of material, instru- 
ments, books, charts, etc. 

(4.) Furniture.— Forty- two adjustable screw re- 
volving chairs, not in building contract. 

Gymnasium and Drill Hall. — .(1.) To be used in 
common for gymnasium exercises, athletic games and 

190 



the drilling of the school cadets. On account of its 
size and for structural conditions, to be generally 
located in the basement, with clear span of ceiling 
and combined height of basement and first story. 
Visitors' gallery generally provided at one end, en- 
tered from first floor. 

(2.) Size.— The classes exercising in the gym- 
nasium are from fifty to one hundred, and a suitable 
floor space for this number, as well as floor space 
for a full company of cadets at drill, is from 3,750 
to 4,000 square feet. The height should not be less 
than 24 feet. 

(3.) Light.— Ample outside light in all cases. 
Electric light from ceiling protected with wire 
guards. 

(4.) Heat and Ventilation. — The former suffi- 
cient to guarantee a temperature of about 60 de- 
grees, and about twice as much ventilation as is cus- 
tomary for the ordinary class-room. This is, of 
course, insufficient for the number of people who 
might occasionally occupy the gymnasium for ex- 
hibitions, but it is more than enough for the ordin- 
ary number using it for class exercises. 

(5.) Equipment. — The standard gymnastic ap- 
paratus consists of the following fixtures, which may 
be slightly modified in particular cases. 

25 Bar stalls. 

25 Bar stall benches. 

4 Double booms. 

4 Saddles. 
20 Vertical ropes. 

2 Inclined ropes. 

191 



2 Eope ladders. 

5 Serpentine ladders. 

3 Horizontal ladders. 

2 Boxes, 1 horse, 1 buck. 
12 Balance boards. 
2 4 by 7 mats. 

2 5 by 10 mats. 

4 Pairs jumping standards and ropes. 
4 Inclined planes. 

6 Traveling rings. 

1 Pair basket ball goals. 

3 Basket balls. 

4 4-lb. medicine balls. 
16 2-lb medicine balls. 

24 Small rubber balls, 2% to 3 in. in diameter. 

8 Indoor baseballs. 

1 Fairbanks scale. 

1 Water spirometer. 

1 Tape measure. 

1 Dozen glass mouthpieces. 
24 Bean bags. 

1 Truck to carry mats. 

1 Storming board. 

6 Pairs 1%-lb. Indian clubs. 

40 Pairs %-lb. Indian clubs. 

8 Chest weights. 

1 Horizontal and vaulting bar. 

1 Pair parallel bars. 

2 Jump boards. 

1 Shoulder caliper. 
(6.) Gun Backs. — Eacks for holding the guns 
carried by the cadets should be provided on wall. 
These racks should be protected by locked doors. 

192 



(7.) Special Booms.— Adjoining gymnasium and 
drill hall two small rooms about 10 feet square 
should be provided for school matron and director of 
gymnasium. 

(8.) Dressing Booms, Baths and Lockers. — (a.) 
System.— The clothing of all the pupils is in a cen- 
tral locker-room, each suit being numbered, and all 
being under the control of the attendant in charge. 
Dressing-rooms are provided in number equivalent 
to the number of a class. A class coming for exer- 
cise are given their gymnasium clothing and keys to 
dressing-rooms, which they lock behind them when 
exercising. After exercise they can take a shower 
bath. When dressed the dressing-room keys are 
given up, but the gymnasium clothing is left to be 
gathered up by the attendant. The clothing is 
carried to the dry-room, and when dried each set is 
put back in its proper pigeonhole. 

(b.) Lackers.— The locker-room is controlled by 
the attendant, and contains pigeonholes, 10-inch 
cube, one for each pupil in the school, and a counter 
over which to deliver the clothing. Adjoining this 
is the dry-room, capable of being heated to a high 
temperature and thoroughly ventilated. This is 
fitted with hooks and clothes line. 

(c.) Dressing-rooms. — The dressing-rooms are 
small cabins, about 3 feet square, with a locked door, 
a seat and hooks. 

(d.) Shoivers.— The shower baths are 3 feet 
square, divided by slate partitions, similar to those 
for water-closets, each having a bar at the front, 



193 



3 
over which a cotton sheet can be dropped. Each 
compartment has two sprays in opposite corners. 

Handicraft Booms. — There should be space in one 
or more rooms for free-hand drawing, mechanical 
drawing, woodworking and metal-working. 

(1.) fee.— The space should be about 3.000 to 
3,600 square feet. The free-hand drawing-room 
should be preferably divided into two drawing- 
rooms, with a work-room between. 

(2.) Light— Windows and artificial light, by 
special fixtures. North light preferable in the draw- 
ing-rooms. 

L (3.) Floors.— Ol wood. 

(4.) Walls.— As in a manual training room. 

(5.) Ceilings.— As in a manual training room. 

(6.) Heating and Ventilation.— Same as in class- 
rooms. 

(7.) Stock-room. — The lumber stock-room 
should contain at least 80 square feet, preferably 
long and narrow. Two 18-inch shelves should run 
around the room, 5 feet 6 inches and 6 feet from 
floor. 

(8.) Teachers' Closets. — Teachers' closet in 
woodworking room should be large enough to be 
used for storage of finished work, and should be 
fitted with all shelving possible, as well as with the 
customary coat hooks. An area of 40 square feet is 
adequate. 

(9.) Fittings. — (a.) Bookcases, like those in 
class-rooms, 150 capacity. 

(&.) Cases. — For work in process, extra tools, 

194 



supplies, drawing boards, models, paper, finished 
drawings, etc. (For all of these, see drawings.) 
(c.) Display Boards. 

(d.) Sink.— A 5-foot sink, with hot and cold 
water. 

(10.) Equipment of Free-hand Drawing-room. — 
Provide accommodation for five divisions, each class 
about twenty-five pupils. 

(11.) Equipment for Mechanical Drawing-room. 
(See Fittings.) Also 12 double drawing tables, 7 
feet 4 inches by 2 feet, with drawers for instruments. 

(12.) Equipment of Woodworking Room.— 
Provide accommodation for four divisions, each 
class about 20 pupils; 20 benches, 36 inches by 18 
inches, fitted with 2 vises, one to be a quick action, 
iron vise, 3 speed lathes, 1 jig saw, 1 circular saw. 

(13.) Equipment of Metal-working Room.— Six 
double benches, 8 feet by 2 feet, fitted with 12 Pren- 
tiss iron vises, 3%-inch jaw; wall bench, fitted with 
10 stations, tool drawers and 5 Bower's tool holders; 
one ^-inch gas hose cock terminal above each bench 
station; 2 gas blast burners, 1 large, 1 small; metal 
covered bench with ventilated hood; 1 muffle fur- 
nace, ventilated ; 1 drill ; 1 forge, ventilated ; 1 anvil : 
1 grindstone; 1 table tool rack; 1 pair bench shears: 
1 engine lathe. 

(14.) Motor. 

Household Science. — (1.) Size. — The space 
should be about 1,200 square feet, and should ac- 
commodate the kitchen, two small rooms for showi^ 
the care of a dining-room and of a bedroom, and ». 
china closet and pantry. 

195 



(2.) Light, Heat, etc.— The same as that for 
other rooms, with additional ventilation in the ki 
chen. 

(3.) Equipment. — The kitchen to contain the 
same equipment as that for grammar school cooking 
rooms, but for 24 stations only; a kitchen pantry 
fitted with shelving and a china closet fitted with a 
sink; drawers, cupboards and shelves inclosed with 
glass doors. The dining-room and bedroom simply 
finished rooms, having no equipment except the fur- 
niture. 

Lunch-Rooms. — (1.) In General. — The lunch- 
rooms in Boston schools have usually been located 
in the basement, and where these are high and well 
lighted this location seems to serve satisfactorily. 
They should, however, have the special ventilation 
that is provided in a basement cooking-room. In 
size, they should accommodate comfortably, seated 
at benches or small tables, that proportion of the 
pupils in the school which take advantage of the 
luncheon facilities. 

(2.) Equipment.— (a.) The counter should be 
set at 2 feet 8 inches high, and should have a rail 2 
feet from it, with openings at intervals, to keep chil- 
dren in single file, and there should be accommoda- 
tion under the counter for dishes. 

(&.) Range.— A six-hole gas range, with arnph 
oven space. 

(c.) Sinks.— Two good-sized soapstone sinks. 

(d.) Ice Box.— Of sufficient size to take care oi 
•milk supply. 



196 



(e.) Lockers.— Sufficient to care for the cloth- 
ing of the attendants, and for mops and brooms, etc. 
These should not be under the counter, or near any 
place where food is kept. 

(/.) Furniture.— In some cases the children are 
provided with camp chairs and small round tables 
to seat four. In others, ordinary school benches have 
been provided. Both seem fairly satisfactory in 
operation. 

Library. — (1.) A space equivalent to a small 
class-room is ample for library purposes. The book 
accommodation will depend somewhat on the size of 
the school. The library is planned as a reading- 
room, that is, with the books in the room and not in 
a separate stack-room. 

Wardrobes. — (1.) In high schools common ward- 
robes are — one for boys and one for girls — advised 
for all the clothing, situated on the lower floor to 
avoid bringing dirt into the upper floors. There 
being an attendant on the lower floor, the room, as a 
whole, can be locked up. 

(2.) Light.— The rooms should have outside 
light. 

(3.) Heat and Ventilation.— This should be thor- 
oughly well heated and ventilated, similar to class- 
rooms. 

(4.) Equipment. — The poles, hooks, etc., will be 
similar to those used in the other schools, but more 
space should be given the girls, i. e., about 1 foot 6 
inches on center. It has been found desirable to 
jhave some locked pigeonholes, 20 by 20 by 12 inches. 

197 



Heating, Ventilation and Electric Systems. 

Heating and Ventilation, Gravity System. — 
(1.) Heat Ducts for School-rooms. 

(a.) Location.— In a corner room, locate the 
duct on the inside wall within 10 feet of the outside 
wall. In a room with one outside wall, locate the 
duct on the inside wall, near the middle. 

(b.) Size.— Allow one square foot area of duct 
for each nine occupants. The opening into the room 
is to be the same area as the duct. The bottom of 
the opening is to be about 8 feet 6 inches above the 
floor. Galvanize d-ir on deflectors, painted to match 
the adjoining walls, will be placed in each opening. 
In addition, there will be a galvanize d-ir on ground 
around the opening. 

(2.) Vent Ducts for School-rooms. 

(a.) Location.— In a corner room, locate the duct 
at the inside corner of the room, and where possible 
on the same wall as the heat duct. In a room with 
one outside wall, the duct is to be on the same inside 
wall as the heat duct, and as near the middle as pos- 
sible. 

(b.) Size. — Allow one square foot area of vent 
duct for each ten occupants. The opening into the 
room will be at the floor, and will be the full size of 
the vent duct. There will be no guard at the open- 
ing. The floor will be carried into the bottom of the 
duct, and the baseboard will be carried in and 
around. The inside of the duct exposed to view will 
be plastered and finished to match the adjoining 
walls. 



198 



Plenum Fan System. — (1.) Heat Ducts for 
School-rooms. 

(a.) Location. — In a corner room, locate the 
duct within ten feet of the outside wall. In a room 
with one outside wall, locate the duct on the inside 
wall, near the middle. 

(&.) Size.— Allow one square foot area of duet 
for each ten occupants. The opening into the room 
is to be one-third larger than the area of the duct. 
The bottom of the opening is to be about 8 feet 6 
inches above the floor. Galvanized-iron deflectors, 
painted to match the adjoining walls, will be placed 
in each opening. In addition, there will be gal- 
vanized-iron ground around the opening. 

(2.) Yent Ducts for School-rooms. 

(a.) Location. — The location and size will be the 
same as those for the Gravity System. 

Toilet-room Vents. — (1.) Duct. — Allow 10 square 
inches of duct area for each closet and 8 square 
inches for each lineal foot of urinal space. 

(2.) Opening. — Each door into the toilet-room is 
to have an opening either in the lower panel, with a 
register face on each side, or underneath the door. 
The net area through the opening in either case is to 
be equal to the area of the main vent duct from the 
room. 

Wardrobe Vents. — (1.) *Duct. — Each wardrobe 
is to have a vent duct with an area of 1 2-3 square 
feet and having a register at the bottom of the room. 

(2.) * Opening. — The door leading into the ward- 
robe at the end farthest from the vent duct is to have 

•This would be modified if the Chicago system of wardrobes 
is adopted. 

199 



3 

an opening similar to that for a toilet-room, so that 
the air can pass from the school-room into the ward 
robe and thence out through the duct. 

Electric Work. — (1.) Service. — This should enter 
basement underground at location to be determined 
by reference to street mains, and should terminate 
on a switchboard located in a fireproof closet, open- 
ing if possible into the basement corridor. 

(2.) Conduits.— All wires to be run in iron con- 
duit concealed, except conduits for mains in base- 
ment, and side outlets in boiler, engine and stack 
rooms. Tap circuit conduits to be run above rough 
floor wherever possible. If floor construction will not 
allow this, they are to be run below floor beams and 
above ceiling, a space of 2 inches being left in which 
they can be run. 

(3.) Wire Slot.— Obtain from electrical division 
the location of slots and openings for conduits and 
panel boards. 

(4.) Cabinets.— All cabinets to be furnished by 
wiring contractor, but finished by the general con- 
tractor. 

(5.) Cutting.— All cutting and patching to be 
done by the general contractor. 

(6.) Outlet s.— Class-rooms to be provided witE 
9 four-light ceiling outlets, controlled by 3 switches. 
Wardrobes to have 1 ceiling outlet, controlled by 
switch in class-room. Corridors to be lighted front 
ceiling wherever possible. Height of side outlets in 
rooms to be 6 feet and in corridors 6 feet 4 inches. 



200 



Switch outlets to be 4 feet. Switches in corridors, 
play-rooms, and pupils' toilet-rooms to be operated 
by private key. 

(7.) Fixtures. — Fixtures in class-rooms to be of 
special design to combine a direct and diffused light. 

(8.) Gas.— Gas outlets to be provided in all cor- 
ridors, vestibules, stairways, boiler-room and as- 
sembly hall exits ; all except vestibule to be wall out- 
lets. Gas-piping to be included in the electrical en- 
gineer's work. 

(9.) Stereopticon.— All grammar schools and 
high schools to be provided with an electric pro- 
jection lantern with reflectoscope attachment. 

(10.) Clocks and Bells.— All schools to be pro- 
vided with an electric system of clocks, operated by 
a master clock. All primary schools to be provided 
with a system of signal bells, operated by push but- 
tons. In all grammar and high schools the bell 
system to be operated automatically by master 
clocks, according to prearranged programme. 

(11.) Telephones.— In all schools, each class- 
room, hall, teachers' room and boiler-room to be con- 
nected to master's office, or to room occupied by the 
first assistant, by a telephone system. 



201 



FORM OF PROGRAM FOR COMPETITIONS. 
NOTE: Early in 1910 a competition was held 
by the First Baptist Church of Pittsburg, Pa., under 
the direction of Prof. "Warren P. Laird of the Univer- 
sity of Pennsylvania. A large number of well known 
architects took part in this competition and the pro- 
gram gave such general satisfaction that the same 
general form has been adopted in the following 
schedule, which is believed to be as near the very best 
practice of the present day as it would be possible 
to arrange. For convenience the program is divided 
into five general headings and each paragraph num- 
bered so that competitors who may write for infor- 
mation and explanations may refer to the heading, 
paragraph and lines by number, which is obviously 
of great convenience and avoids mistakes. 

SECTION (1),— THE PROJECT. 

P 1. THE BOAKD OF EDUCATION OF THE 

CITY OF PROPOSES to erect 

a (high or grade) school building on the property of 

the Board located at in the city of 

, which location is fully de- 
scribed on the topographical map supplied with this 
program. 

P 2. TO SELECT AN ARCHITECT FOR THIS 
BUILDING a competition is hereby established and 
will be conducted by the said Board under the terms 
set forth in this program. The Secretary (or Clerk) 

of said Board is Mr 

(address) 

203 



3 
P3. AS ITS CONSULTING AECHITECT to 

prepare this program, and act as professional adviser 
in the conducting of this competition, the said Board 

has appointed Mr 

(Address) 

SECTION (2)— THE PROGRAM. 

P4. THE TERMS OP THIS COMPETITION 
are set forth in this program, which constitutes an 
agreement between the said Board of Education, on 
the one hand, and each competitor and the appointed 
architect severally on the other hand. 

P 5. IT IS THEREFORE UNDERSTOOD THAT 
EACH ARCHITECT who submits designs in this 
competition thereby accepts the terms of same as 
binding upon him, both as to the competition and any 
agreement which may arise from it. 

P6. THE TERMS OF THE COMPETITION 
WILL NOT BE MODIFIED in any important re- 
spect without the consent of a majority of the com- 
petitors, but additional information will be supplied 
when necessary. 

P7. COMMUNICATIONS REGARDING THE 
COMPETITION may be addressed either to the 
Secretary of the said Board, or to the professional 
adviser. They must be in writing. Copies of all 
such communications, with the replies thereto, will be 
sent simultaneously to each competitor and will 
thereupon become a part of this program. No such 
communications will be received nor information is- 
sued after. . (date) 

204 



P8. THE TERM ARCHITECT OR AUTHOR 
AS USED IN THIS PROGRAM means the single 
competitor, whether he be an individual or a firm of 
architects. The term " Board " refers to the Board 
of Education named in Section (1), PI. The term 
" Appointed Architect" means the architect award- 
ed the prize of this competition, and appointed as 
architect of the proposed work. The topographical 
plan of the site, and the schedule of charges of the 
the American Institute of Architects form an es- 
sential part of this program. 

SECTION (3)— THE COMPETITION. 

P9. ESPECIALLY INVITED ARCHITECTS. 
The board have especially invited two (or more"> 
architects to submit designs in this competition each 
of whom will be paid . . . ($ ) ... in full com- 

pensation for his services in the competition. 

P10. OTHER ARCHITECTS ELIGIBLE 
The competition will also be open to all other archi- 
tects who may be qualified, as hereinafter stated, and 
two (or more) prizes or competition fees will be 
awarded among said architects as follows: ($. . . . 

) to the uninvited competitor standing first 

in merit ; ($ ) to the uninvited competitor 

standing second in merit, etc. 

Pll. FINAL JUDGMENT WILL BE REN- 
DERED by a jury composed of the Board's pro- 
fessional adviser, and two other architects to be 
chosen by ballot by the competitors, this choice tc 
be based on majority preference as shown by the 
ballots deposited with the Board. These ballots will 

205 



J 



J 
be invited early in the competition and will not be 

accepted later than (date) When 

arranged, the personnel of the jury will immediately 
be announced to each competitor. The Board will 
bear the expense of securing the jury. 

P12. THE AECHITECTS ESPECIALLY IN- 
VITED. 

The following architects have been especially in- 
vited : 



The Board reserves the right to fill any vacancy 
among the foregoing that may occur during the com- 
petition. 

P 13. THE BOARD DESIRES THE PARTICIP- 
ATION of other architects of good professional 
standing and experience in the execution of work of 
this magnitude. All who wish to enter the com- 
petition are requested to apply for admission upon 
forms furnished, upon application, by the Secretary 
of the Board. The Board will extend invitations to 
approved applicants to submit designs in the com- 
petition. Only architects receiving such invitation 
shall be eligible to this competition. 

P14. THE PRIZE OF THE COMPETITION 
will be the commission to design and supervise the 
construction of the building herein described. This 
prize will be awarded to the competitor whose de- 
sign is awarded first prize by the Board as provided 
in P24 of this program. 

206 



P 15. THE NUMBER AND KINDS OF DRAW- 
INGS and their scale, etc., are to be as follows: 
PLANS; one of each floor will be required. These 
plans should each include at least ike property lines 
of the site. ELEVATION AND SECTIONS; two of 
each are required. No drawings other than those 
prescribed in this section are permitted. (NOTE: 
In case it is preferred to receive a perspective draw- 
ing, the elevations may or may not be omitted as the 
professional adviser and Board may determine). 
SCALE; the scale of all drawings is to be one-six- 
teenth (or one-eighth) of an inch to the foot. 

P16. PERSPECTIVE; in case a perspective 
drawing is required, the program must state the dis- 
tance from the building at which the point of sight is 
to be assumed, and the angles at which the building 
is assumed to stand with reference to the beholder; 
also the location of the horizon line. 

P17. RENDERING, ETC., OF DRAWINGS 
MUST be made with black pencil on tracing paper 
mounted on cardboard, one drawing to each sheet. 
No drawing shall exceed in dimensions. . (inches) . . . 
Brush work may be employed in rendering, but must 
be in black and white. No landscape or scenic ac- 
cessories whatever will be permitted on any drawing, 
but a single human figure 5 feet 8 inches high should 
be drawn on each elevation, section and perspective 
to show its scale. Lettering may be done in red, but 
otherwise neither color nor gold is to be used in the 
making of any drawing. Treatment of floor and 
ceiling surfaces may be indicated if desired. Desks,, 
cabinets and other permanent furniture may be 



207 



3 
shown if desired, but in any case the seating capacity 
and area of each room should be lettered thereon. 
Lines of grading, terracing, pavements, steps, etc., 
and all lines given in the topographical map of the 
site, may be included but no other scenic accessories. 
The names of all rooms with their dimensions and 
areas and any other such information necessary to 
explain the purpose of the drawings throughout may 
be lettered thereon. Sections must have story 
heights from floor to floor lettered thereon. The 
title to be put upon each sheet of drawings shall be 
COMPETITION OF THE (HIGH OE GEADE) 

SCHOOL BUILDING OF . . (city) and any 

such other words as are actually necessary to desig- 
nate parts and uses of the structure ; dimensions and 
capacity; drawings and the scale to which they are 
drawn. Eoman lettering only may be used. 

P 18. IT IS A CONDITION OF THIS AGEEE- 
MENT that the design submitted by any architect 
must be his own authorship, produced within his 
own office under his personal direction. It is under- 
stood that by his participation in this competition, 
each competitor thereby agrees that any violation by 
him of this section nullifies this agreement so far as 
he is concerned and any engagement proceeding 
from it. 

P 19. ONLY ONE DESIGN may be submitted 
by any competitor ; flaps and alternative schemes are 
not permitted. No design may be accompanied by 
any description or means of illustration other than 
those expressly provided herein, and the required 
drawings must conform absolutely to the requirements 
of this program in every way. 



208 






P 20. NO NAMES, SYMBOLS OR ANY OTHER 
identifying name or mark may appear upon the 
drawings, nor upon the wrapper in which designs 
are delivered, nor upon the outside of the sealed en- 
velope below provided. No competitor directly or 
indirectly may reveal the identity of his design, or 
seek to influence in his favor any member of the jury 
or of the Board. 

P 21. THE DRAWINGS ARE TO BE IN PORT- 
FOLIOS securely wrapped and addressed to the 

Clerk of the Board of .... (city) Inside 

of the wrapper, attached to the outside of portfolio 
is to be placed an opaque envelope, sealed with wax, 
and addressed on the outside in typewriting to the 
Clerk of the Board. Inside of this sealed envelope is 
to be placed a card bearing the name of the author 
of the designs which it accompanies. The designs 
thus prepared and addressed, must be in the hands of 
the Clerk of the Board, at his address first herein 
given, not later than twelve o'clock noon on. . (date) 

P 22. DISPOSAL OF DESIGNS. All designs so 
delivered, will be turned over to the professional ad- 
viser for inspection, by himself and associates of the 
jury. The sealed envelopes accompanying the port- 
folios will be retained by the Clerk of the Board, and 
will not be opened until after the award has been de- 
termined by the jury. Any drawings which do not 
conform with the terms of this program will, upon 
recommendation of the adviser, be excluded from 
the competition by the Board. 

P 23. THE APPROVED DESIGNS will then be 
examined by the jury and after due consideration of 

209 



3 
all conditions of this program, and the site on which 
the building is to stand, and after due comparison 
of all designs admitted to competition, the jury will 
mark each design in the order of its merit as de- 
termined by them, No. 1 being the design standing 
first in merit, No. 2 the design standing second in 
merit, etc. The jury will then report to the Board 
the rating of the designs in the order of their merit 
and will recommend to the Board for its choice, as 
the first prize design, that one which has been 
selected by the jury as standing first in merit. The 
report of the jury as to the relative merit of the 
designs submitted, and the recommendation as to 
first prize design, shall constitute the report of the 
jury to the Board, and a majority vote shall de- 
termine such recommendation and selection. 

P 24. THE BOARD WILL THEN CONSIDER 
the said report and make examination of all the de- 
signs with the adviser's assistance and immediately 
take action by selecting that design which may be in 
its opinion the best; will thereupon open the en- 
velope containing the name of the author of said de- 
sign, and appoint him the architect of the work des- 
cribed in Section 4 of this program. The Board will 
then open the remaining envelopes, and award the 
cash prizes to the architects standing next in merit 
as shown by the report of the jury, and no especial- 
ly invited paid competitors shall be eligible to these 
awards. All votes of the Board in this connection 
shall be taken and determined in the usual manner 
as prescribed by law. 

P25. THE PRIZE OF THE COMPETITION! 
will not be awarded to any design which calls for a| 

210 



volume of more than ( cu. ft.), said volume 

being computed within the outer face line of all out- 
side walls, comprising all buttresses, columns, porte- 
cocheres, etc., and comprising the vertical height be- 
tween basement floor level and the mean level of 
roofs. In case towers or domes are included in the 
design, their volume shall be computed at double the 
actual dimensions. 

P 26. PAYMENT SHALL BE MADE after the 
making of awards as follows: To the appointed 
architect ($ ) on account of his fee as archi- 
tect of the work, and to the remaining architects 
such competitive fees as may be due them. If the 
appointed architect be among those especially in- 
vited or entitled by merit to a competitive fee, such 
fee shall be liquidated by the above payment on ac- 
count. 

P 27. DRAWINGS SHALL BE RETURNED to 
the authors of unaccepted designs, and the Board 
Iwill make no use of any ideas or data contained in 
them without proper compensation to their authors. 

P28. THE VIOLATION BY ANY COMPETI- 
TOR of paragraphs 18, 19 or 20 of this program will 
thereby exclude him from the competition, and thi& 
penalty may be imposed at any time when his 
identity becomes known. 

P 29. IN THE EVENT OF DISAGREEMENT 

between the Committee and competitor, or the ap- 
pointed architect, at any time relating to any of the 
)rovisions of this program, all parties at interest 
lereby agree that the judgment of the professional 






211 



3 
adviser of the Board relating to such disputed ques- 
tion shall be final and binding upon the parties con- 
cerned. 

SECTION (4)— THE PROBLEM. 

Under this head it is impossible in a program for 
general application to set forth conditions which will 
apply equally well under all conditions. ' It will 
therefore suffice to say that this section should in- 
clude the fullest and most definite statement pos- 
sible regarding the building to be constructed. The 
sections should give full information concerning the 
following items and all others which may be of 
value to competitors : 

(1). The amount of money which the Board 
have available for the construction of the building, 
and a statement whether said amount is fixed or 
variable ; 

(2). The number of stories the building is to 
contain, name each story specifically; 

(3). The style of architecture if any preferred 
by the Board; 

(4). The character of materials if any preferred 
by the Board for the exterior of the building ; 

(5). The statement whether or not the building 
is to be fireproof, or ordinary construction, also what 
type of construction; 

(6). A complete list of every room to be con- 
tained in the building and as nearly as possible the 
size required for each room (NOTE: A very con- 
venient way to arrive at satisfactory results in this 
particular is to adopt an ordinary school room 



212 



; 



measuring 23x32 feet as a unit, and refer to all other 
rooms as equal to so many units or portions thereof) ; 

(7). A complete statement as to the method of 
heating and ventilating to be used in the building ; 

(8). Definite instructions as to the plan of ad- 
ministration to be followed in the building — that is, 
whether the study room plan, or separate class room 
plan is to be followed, etc. ; 

(9). The method of lighting if any which com- 
petitors will be required to observe ; 

Finally all other information which may be at 
the disposal of the Board and which will be of value 
to the competitors in preparing designs. 

SECTION (5)— APPOINTED ARCHITECT. 

P 40. THE ARCHITECT APPOINTED as here- 
in provided shall revise his competitive design until 
it meets the approal of the Board, and shall then 
promptly prepare full working drawings and specifi- 
cations of the work as a whole, and shall during its 
construction have and be in full charge and author- 
ity of the work. 

P 41. THE SAID ARCHITECT shall at his own 
expense make such revisions and alterations of 
working drawings and specifications, based upon the 
approved competitive design, as may be necessary to 
ensure the proper construction and completion of the 
building within the cost limit fixed by and sub- 
stantially as described in this program. 

P42. THE COMPENSATION OF THE AP- 
POINTED ARCHITECT shall be at the rate of six 
per cent upon the cost of the work committed to hip 
charge. Should expert engineering services be re- 

213 



quired by the Board the fee therefor shall be paid by 
the Board, but not in excess of five per cent of that 
portion of the work. Except as above provided, the 
architect shall render service and receive compen- 
sation in accordance with the schedule and practice 
of the American Institute of Architects, as shown in 
statement appended to this program. He shall not 
in any way transfer, assign or bequeath his appoint- 
ment or share it with any other person, without the- 
written consent of the Board. 

P43. A CLERK OF THE "WORKS shall (or 
shall not as desired) be employed by the architect 
as the work may require, said Clerk of the works to 
be satisfactory to the Board and worthy of a com- 
pensation of not less than $100.00 per month. 

P44 ALL DRAWINGS, SPECIFICATIONS 
AND THEIR COPIES are and shall remain the 
property of the architect, and shall be used only as 
instruments of service in the construction of the 
building; but one copy of the revised competitive 
design and of each general working drawing and of 
the specifications shall be permanently left with the 
Board by the architect. 

This program approved this (date) 

The Board of Education of (City) 

Pres. 

Secy. 

, , Adviser, 

214 



THE CANONS OF ETHICS, AMERICAN INSTI- 
TUTE OF ARCHITECTS. 

The following canons of professional ethics are 
adopted by the American Institute of Architects as 
a general guide, yet the enumeration of particular 
duties should not be construed as a denial of the ex- 
istence of others equally important although not 
specifically mentioned. 

It is Unprofessional for an Architect. 

1. To engage directly or indirectly in any of the 
building trades. 

2. To guarantee an estimate or contract by bond 
or otherwise. 

3. To accept any commission or substantial 
service from a contractor, or from any disinterested 
party other than the owner. 

4. To advertise. 

5. To take part in any competition the terms of 
which are not in harmony with the principles ap- 
proved by the Institute. 

6. To attempt in any way, except as a duly 
authoried competitor, to secure work for which a 
competition is in progress. 

7. To attempt to influence, either directly or in- 
directly, the award of a competition in which he is 
not a competitor. 

8. To accept the commission to do the work for 



215 



which a competition has been instituted, if he has 
acted in an advisory capacity, either in drawing the 
programme or in making the award. 

9. To injure falsely or maliciously, directly or in- 
directly, the professional reputation, prospects or 
business of a fellow architect. 

10. To undertake a commission while the claim 
for compensation, or damages, or both, of an archi- 
tect previously employed, and whose employment has 
been terminated remains unsatisfied, until such 
claim has been referred to arbitration or issue has 
been joined at law, or unless the architect previous- 
ly employed neglects to press his claim legally. 

11. To attempt to supplant a fellow architect 
after definite steps have been taken toward his em- 
ployment. 

12. To compete knowingly with a fellow archi- 
tect for employment on the basis of professional 
charges. 



216 



SCHEDULE OF MINIMUM CHARGES. 

1. The architect's professional services consist 
of the necessary conferences, the preparation of pre- 
liminary studies, working drawings, specifications, 
large scale and full size detail drawings, and of the 
general direction and supervision of the work; for 
which, except as hereinafter mentioned, the mini- 
mum charge, based upon the total cost of the work 
complete is six percent. 

2. On residential work, on alterations to existing 
buildings, on monuments, furniture, decorative and 
cabinet work and landscape architecture, it is proper 
to make a higher charge than above indicated. 

3. The architect is entitled to compensation for 
articles purchased under his direction, even though 
not designed by him. 

4. If an operation is conducted under separate 
contracts rather than under a general contract, it is 
proper to charge a special fee in addition to the 
charges mentioned elsewhere in this schedule. 

5. Where the architect is not otherwise retained, 
consultation fees for professional advice are to be 
paid in proportion to the importance of the questions 
involved and services rendered. 

6. "Where heating, ventilating, mechanical, 
structural, electrical and sanitary problems are of 
such a nature as to require the services of a special- 
ist, the owner is to pay for such services. Chemical 
and mechanical tests and surveys, when required, 
are to be paid for by the owner. 

217 



7. Necessary traveling expenses are to be paid 
by the owner. 

8. If, after a definite scheme has been approved, 
changes in drawings, specifications or other docu- 
ments are required by the owner ; or if the architect 
be put to extra labor or expense by the delinquency 
or insolvency of a contractor, the architect shall be 
paid for such additional services and expense. 

9. Payments to the architect are due as his work 
progresses in the following order : Upon completion 
of the preliminary studies, one-fifth of the entire fee ; 
upon completion of specifications and general work- 
ing drawings (exclusive of details) two-fifths ad- 
ditional, the remainder being due from time to time 
in proportion to the amount of service rendered. 
Until an actual estimate is received, charges are 
based upon the proposed cost of the work and pay- 
ments received are on account of the entire fee. 

10. In case of the abandonment or suspension of 
the work, the basis of settlement is to be as follows : 
For preliminary studies, a fee in accordance with 
the character and magnitude of the work; for pre^ 
liminary studies, specifications and general working 
drawings (exclusive of details), three fifths of the 
fee for complete services. 

11. The supervision of an architect (as dis- 
tinguishd from the continuous personal superin- 
tendence which may be secured by the employment 
of a clerk-of-the-works, or superintendent of con- 
struction) means such inspection by the architect or 
his deputy, of work in studios and shops, or a build- 
ing or other work in process of erection, completion 



218 



or alteration, as he finds necessary to ascertain 
whether it is being executed in general conformity 
with his drawings and specifications or directions. 
He has authority to reject any part of the work 
which does not so conform, and to order its removal 
and reconstruction. He has authority to act in 
emergencies that may arise in the course of con- 
struction, to order necessary changes, and to define 
the intent and meaning of the drawings and specifi- 
cations. On operations where a clerk of the works 
or superintendent of construction is required, the 
architect shall employ such assistance at the owner's 
expense. 

12. Drawings and specifications, as instruments 
of service, are the property of the architect. 



219 



APPENDIX. 

In the following pages are given details of school 
fittings and equipment, also numerous illustrations 
of sanitary fixtures, correct heating and ventilating 
apparatus, shower baths, etc. 

There are also given the floor plans and illustra- 
tions of the best types of present day American 
school buildings. It would be a pleasure to illustrate 
many other equally correct and successful buildings, 
but the scope of the present work limits us to just 
enough to fully illustrate present day standards. 



221 



WARDROBE-FITTINGS' 

'-v^rr**. SCALE li'-MFOOT 



» Moouunci to 




£ WARDROBE BRACKET « 

1 WLWVHOOKft. 



9 HOOK* 
etTWBJiM BRACKKTJ 



UM6WUA HOI-&EK 





BftACKETS T=ofc H|«H'*CHOeU«. 

T»IS.S.<So-*X!>, 



9o* XI ISC t-iKIHd 
&RJP PAH 



PKSVS* BIMVIKB.T 




JU 



"DtTAlUOF CL-OTHES "POUES USED WHEM 
At-l_ SIDE'S OF WAW.DTU3BES AW.E UTIU'Z.EO. 

Boston Public Schools 



222 



BOSTON PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
•LECTURE- 



S' 



0^ 



•SECTlOM< 



Fim. FLooM^ 





SECTlON.-TVl ROUGH 
PoPil-S ■ DfiSK A*0 CHAIR.- 
SE £• Pi. AN -&ELOV/- 






l5'-0" 







.WiN6oWSArR£AS.OFIlOOM' 



ROOM- 



223 



Bostoh Public schools 
•CHEMICAL- 



LABORATORY - - 



BOUIMG OVttS. TfcOUJH'. l''9°H'0> 




iSTOCK. iROon 



-<L 



P*3 

rv, 



• P«.£PAfcATrOAt • ROOM< 



^M^ 



Case 




Scale Feet 



Q ,5" IP 

I I I I I I —fa 



3P 25" ^O 



224 



DUPIL5TA5LE" 




*"& l*]ff*Gl/.tt IrttfcC MOwdSlwi&'i XI 




•AY EACHORAWEt^ 
■ IN • PRO*r. OP-EWH 



•S£CflOA»- A- A- 



CHEMICAL-LAbOG^Dn^ 



225 



I NSmUOORS TABLE- 




OS.. .H1.E.VATI ON « 



I N • CHEMICAL- 



l°- 


II - 1 


L= 


JLfd 


C5 


1!'- 1 




.FRONT. .E.1-E.VATION. 



•AND- -PHYSICAL- 

A \jL /••MEP.CUR-Y. RINGS CLp,ti f Pi„f £ 




■Pwj| 



PlME-TGP* 

< f Jr. MAPS AND CHARTS 3=j3j 



<| - I2.-0" 

>50APSTON£.-SJNK » Pi-AN' 



iABOCLATORlES- 

HorA_Acoi : D 



an ml 




([ 


j 



SECTION- A- B- -SECTlON.C-D. 



• END* 



Boston Public 5chool,s 



226 






■PUPILS- TABLE- 
Bostons. ^-Public s Schools 



/ WHTC PINE TOP 

Balance, of -mat: 



I UK \ 

-E wmW 



'5ECYfOA4. 



r 



C55ES 



PHYSICAL- n 



SEE3 



4l TABLES -LIKE THIS- 



V 



'& 



L 



s 



*t 



:ffl 



=£ 



FiM- floor.' 



• PRONT. .EL£VAYlOAi< 



ELEC 



*0 

'i 

OoyBL&_^_j'i 
€ft*>TERMlNAU |[ 




GASTfcRMINAL, 



Ei.EC. 



■PL.A/H. 



LABORATORY- 



227 



PU PI US -TABLE- 

AND • MAR.BLE-SNK- 




•BOTANICAL- 



[*/& PLATE. CLASS CROU/VD . 



3 



FR.ONT* 



AN D • ZOOLOGICAL- i 






3^T 



>fr.ony< 



a-b'' 






1 



r 



I 



•EMO. .SECTION. 

LAbOPArOKy. 



228 



•DRAWING-ROOM- 



DDDD 

saga 

namn 



s 



DRAWING BOA «>£ 





DOCKS H£K£ SAME AS 



Boston Public 5cHools 




LJ 



m. 



• SEcncrt. 



CAS&FOR:DQfWING»E£ABa5' 




MQDBL<-ST7\ND<> 

•&LE.VATION- 



t 



pa 



bcm* 



pR.o/«rr« 



SECTION. 



DUDJLST^BLE- 



229 



COOKING-ROOM ^ FITTINGS 

-tfr" 1 ? . » 

SR39 




Coc 



^Minora rt». JCAWfek i»-|v»u)a. 
s»»»- I 1 1 



< IN6 



£ 



1 

* «RpM t iftfi*9M>» SWUfMM* 

I poor 



Boston Public Schools 



W:H&OW* 6K THtS »IOTT- 






-1 



^ « x »?,*;; Ml 




?u*n of cooking R.oom 

8CAl.Ef"«\rOOT 



230 



•MANUAL-TRMNING-ROW 

scale jfvir- 1F0OT 

Boston public vSchools 

wi^oowa on thv$ side 



bwoHiroATton * 



iTtpjfc. 



TEAX-HE.*-* KSK. 



t> IMOK STRATH M SIKCJt 



□ □ □ □ □ 

□ □□□.□ 

□ □ □ □ □ 

□ □.□□□ 

D d □ □ n 

□ □ □ □ □ 



Stock Room 
A(<fi^ ©a «^ TFT 






stock. eAe(.<s «&& 9*7*11.. 



TSAcitttu cueseT 



PLAN OF MANUAL TRAINING S^OM SCALE jjf"« I FOOT 



COMPARTMENTS- lOTitRi HiGH 
3' TO IZ" WIDE - G'toJ-HIGK. 

2-li."E>EEP.1HSID£ 



•z zzzzzzzzzz zzzzz z Z Z ZZ ZZ2 ^ 







FJUtlTH, To 
LiFt OUT 



T«E«% FIKSH7 4 
T© COVSd May 

IN LENftTM 

B*6« BOAJO. 




DETAIL OF STOCK CASE'S 



231 



CITY OF B05TOK 
•DE^ONSTQ^riWTAbLE' 



PIUJNG 



z-8" 






1 3FFt1 







3jf 

2*U 



23 



^=-*5="«^C-" 



3 O 
til 

. I 

> f 

! « 

i * 

5 I 



L«J 



2.'- 9" 



LECTURE- DOOM- 

n5cal.e Tt. 



232 



LAVATORY- BOWLS 




PLAN. 



5106. 



EJLEVAtlON' 



HINGES' 



•WATER.- 
CLOSET DOORS- 



^r^ 



evear tmir.o 
tbwau 









•EJLEVAHOA1* SECTION • ^5C&L£ SHOWING* 

Boston ScHoois BRASS,H,NCas - 



233 



-SLATE -SINK 




a i! a* 



i 



an» iiNoa.) 



m 



j |T< -$iA« &A«C 



EM 






V»L.v.„..._. «,_,.■* < 



Itf 




/i©1t BMeKftltTO 88 RAW Vol** SINK* ■« »A»»M«IVr »iUO? SINKS' 

(nbassmsnt-w sc oarmiNBO wom scmbowiain S?K.ciPiCA*n©rtS* 

•SLATE-UUJNAb 



•LftAsT-rwcr 

i. iKo<« vawi* 

LfefiZK. 







_- J 



•SECTION. 



Boston Public Schools 



234 




< ssss ■ ^^^ ■=3^< kv.v\ ^ -VN - ^^^ \; 



FRONT ELEVATION 



DRAWSSi 



1 



FLtTEi urrsBD WITH <3.l. 
AMD CARRIED DO WIN TO 

SEWtR 




PLAN AT D 



°jl HOT WATER HERE., 

ij COl-D WATER AMD ftUNStn 

!l 6URnE« Ot-I OTHER S>tX>& 

_j| WATER SUPPLY PIPE.S 
1 1 ^"olAMETEft. 



PLAN ATC 



IX&LEib in Chemical Laboratory 



235 



Q°f 



--~- 








IT 




l l 






t ■ »H 




n 













236 



d 

i 

I 



!t 

a of 



U 




e 3 
J* 






□ 



!< 

F o 



9 J 

u 

n 



if 




iiiJi 



237 



□ 



X 



/ 




MM 



r 
g 

I 

\d 

J 

v aJ 

id 
Q 




^ 




KS.SS.S.S'S.'S.S.'S^S.'S.SSVS.S.'S.'S.SS.'-sV 




1 2 




238 



$ 



HO0KS SPACB-D <?'*t>AGT 
IH TW<? SOWA OH 
JH&lDE.. OHi.V. 



J- &/riKAGE. 




K 
<0> 



i^jc^ff. 



JBt-OOfZ 




&'X3"xJb"/ ]pAMGt.es IscBEweJa Te>F r /.oo&. 

COAT RACKS IN HALLS 



239 




CHAL.K TROUGHS 
240 



/1 \ Y \ ' f -JT^ 



\.« 



O &RAS.& 
OR COPPER 



LEG& OF E»CA£»t PIPE 
= l"-IROM PIPE SI^E. 
/7 1 t"-OC. 




■Si 



FLOOR ^ 



SECTIOtS ELEVATION 

5emch For Physical. Laboratory 




Drinking Fountain 
Porcelain Mouthpiece. 





Modern 

Drinking Fountain 

With Metal Top. 

Courtesy of Jas. B. Clow 

& Sons, Chicago. 



Courtesy of The J. L. 
Mott Iron Works. 

Section of Automatic 
Water Closet, showing 
seat - control of water 
valve. 



241 



ALL PORCELAIN DRINKING FOUNTAIN 
Courtesy of The J. L. Mott Iron Works. 



'■:■■ ::^i;:^ 












^^^mS^mmm 












:■! 







BATTERY OF FOUR DRINKING FOUNTAINS 

in Iron Porcelain Enameled Basin. 

Courtesy of The J. L. Mott Iron Works. 



242 




GOOD TYPE OF VENTILATED SLATE URINAL 

Such as described on page 73. 

Courtesy of James B. Clow & Sons, Chicago. 



243 



ALL PORCELAIN VENTILATED URINAI^ 

Courtesy of Trenton Potteries Co. 

Trenton, N. J. 



244 






PORCELAIN URINALS IN BATTERIES 
Courtesy of The J. L. Mott Iron Works. 

245 



""1 



STANDARD DESIGN FOR TOILET 
AND STALL PARTITIONS. 

Courtesy of The J. L. Mott Iron Works. 



246 




VENTILATED AUTOMATIC WATER CLOSET 

SEAT CONTROL. 

Closet vents into wall as shown. Courtesy of James B. Clow 

& Sons, Chicago. 



247 





PATENTED BY JAMES B. CLOW & SONS, CHICAGO. 

Good arrangement of Closets and Utility Chamber to 
Ventilate as described on pages 70-76. 



248 



JUK 




STANDARD SCHOOL LAVATORIES 
Courtesy of The J. L. Mott Iron Works. 



*£- 




AUTOMATIC VENTILATED CLOSET. 
Courtesy of The J. L. Mott Iron Works. 

249 






J 



1;,- 



„ 



<n 



STANDARD SHOWER BATH STALLS 
AND DRESSING ROOMS. 

Courtesy of James B. Clow & Sons, Chicago. 



250 





|ill% fj y\ tM 



J: 

T 



, lli 



: 



Exterior View and Isometric Section, showing layout of 

Heating and Ventilating Plant in the Edward Wyman 

School, St. Louis, Mo. 

Wm. B. Ittner, Architect. 

Courtesy of The American Blower Co. , Detroit. 



251 





TWO ILLUSTRATIONS OF BLOWER SYSTEMS. 
Courtesy of The American Blower Co., Detroit. 
Note.— The fan or blower is contained in the circular shaped 
housing or casing. The upper illustration shows overhead 
delivery of hot air. The lower shows sub-basement floor 
ducts for the delivery of hot air. 

252 




ILLUSTRATION OF MODERN BLOWER SYSTEM. 

Courtesy of The American Radiator Co. 

The large rectangular housing or boxes contain Hot "Vento" 
steam coils, and the curved housing contains the fan or blower. 
Cold air is drawn through the coils by the fan and forced 
thence out through the large ducts shown, into all parts of 
the building. 



253 




bjo 

'3 



o o 



O O) 

o o 

03 



254 




255 




256 




257 




258 




259 




, -i. - ~ = s : " " ^j 



de • School ■ Bl_l>G' 






Tf 



Newark.- -Ohio 



First Floor Plan 




•Woodside. • School ■ Blps 



Newark.- -On 



Basement Floor Plan 



WOODSIDE SCHOOL, NEWARK, OHIO. 
Wilbur T. Mills, Architect. 



260 




261 




262 




263 




264 




o 
o 
< 
o 

I— I 

o 

hi 

o 
o 

o 

CO 

H 

H 
H 
CO 



<J o 



2 M 

« S 

£ .a 




266 




267 







Sixteen Room Fireproof High School 
Cost $80,000.00. 



270 




271 




Sixteen Room Fireproof High School. 



272 



X 




Sixteen Room Fireproof High School. 



273 



u 



Class 
Room 



Class 
Room 



Class 
Room 




Plam of 
T=irst Floor. 



HIGH SCHOOL AT BLUEFIELD, W. VA. 

Wilbur T. Mills, Architect 

Columbus, Ohio. 

Note — This building is erected on the side of a mountain, 
the upper central entrance being level with the ground, and 
the side entrances about ten feet lower. The building also 
has basement and sub-basement floors with additional en- 
trances opening directly onto the ground level from each 
floor level. 



274 




275 



Class 
Doom 



L Assembly Doom D 

i i ■■ n mg- u HM -LL 1 



Plan of 
5Ecor-)D Floor. 



T 



Cl_ASS 

Room 




HIGH SCHOOL AT BLUEFIELD, W. VA. 

Wilbur T. Mills, Architect 

Columbus, Ohio. 



276 




w 




aJ 


o 










3 


J 




O 


o 


+j 


1-5 


.0 


en 


T3 


, w 


-M 


0? 


1 CO. 






PQ 


I & 


< 


"0 


■ 1 O 


m 





Si W 

1 < 
IS 
I £ 


g 

H 
Oh 



m 

c 


ti 


u 






< 


H 


5 




W 


Q 


CO 


£ 




-(-» 


<d 




3 


j 




O 



277 



1 t t * r * " f* 




278 




g * 



I I— I 



O g 






279 



i. ^^.r 



Class Room 




Class Room 




SECor-iD __ra_ooe . Pi_am_ 



Class R.oom 




FiEST Fi_oora Plam 



Plans of Ten Room Fireproof School Building 
Cost $30,000.00. 



280 




281 



Five Room 
Fireproof 
Township 
High 
School. 
Cost 
,000. 




pi_A,N Of- flB.5T TLOOP-- 



Six Room Fire- 
proof .School 
Building. HE™ 
Cost" i$18, 000 to 
$20,000. 




First Floor Plam 



282 




c 
o 

< 

o 
o 
w 

o 






~H .2 

Xfl 



283 



Class Room 



l=."mq " 



:i_a^s Coon 



XA.&S E.OON 



tnH.^Tt 



m. 



Class ELc 



F"lE,e>T rL°oE. Pl_A^ 

EIGHT ROOM FIREPROOF SCHOOL BUILDING 
Cost $25,000.00. 

Probably more eight room school buildings are erected 
than any other type. There is almost no limit to the variety 
of designs employed in these buildings. Economy considered, 
this is one of the best plans we have ever seen. 

System of construction, reinforced concrete. 



284 




285 



:[ zz nq * 



C l^^s Eooi 




tan'=:i 



Cla&?> Room 



5eco-MD Pl°o& Pla^m 

EIGHT ROOM FIREPROOF SCHOOL BUILDING 

Cost $25,000.00. 

In this plan, what is known as the Chicago Plan for coat 
rooms is used. For description see pages 43 and 44. Heat- 
ing and ventilation by hot air furnaces and Plenum fan 
system, automatically controlled. 



286 





/ ^SnH 










L: ^--^iF/ii^S 




f^^B .F^S~ /E^pll 






■ d 






£ 


\ 


Ifif '' W« ! 

i-;£- : ■■%.■■■ • 



287 




289 




290 




-Basement' Plan - 
^tuyvesant, ijKgb jj»ctoooi ~ Manhattan *» 



291 




"First -Floor- Pla as »> 

$iuyvesant*^ieh- T ichoo1 'Manhattan 



292 




"Second Floor Plan - 

- ^tuyvesant "^ieb $cbooi -Manhattan- 



293 




294 




HIGH SCHOOL AT GOSHEN, N. Y. 
Squires & Wynkoop, Architects, New York. 



295 




FIRST FLOOR 
PLAN. 



ID'DDnDDQD 
lDDQ&Q'Q-nDlb 

inndo'DD.nn 

lnnnnnnnn 



: n Heoa«y K.6DM 
nnrfnnmfini 

DnflDDDDPI 



inBfl-&&DD.I 

tfnnnnnni 
i annua dpi 



HIGH SCHOOL AT GOSHEN, N. Y. 
Squires & Wynkoop, Architects, New York. 



296 




': 






-f-, ;|| 



HIGH SCHOOL AT GOSHEN, N. Y. 
Squires & Wynkoop, Architects, New York. 



297 



SECOND FLOOR 
PLAN. 



□ ncmnnmn 

□ DQQP'HDO 

□ □ □ Ha a □ □ 

annanntiD 




dflddddadnddnnnatjnn 
a □ a $ q%5 ya 5_ftg)M a a a n rt 
aDDannjH'^Ba««atinndad d; 
□ noannfinanhnDnnnna 11 - 1 ■ 
naaauautmnntinabana 
aDannnnnnndnndaanti 



naannna 
fd nan and 
4J fiiW& 



( laannana 3* 




HIGH SCHOOL AT GOSHEN, N. Y. 
Squires & Wynkoop, Architects, New York. 



298 




299 



_n_n_Ji 




300 




High School, Battle Creek, Mich. 

Wilbur T. Mills, Architect 

Columbus, Ohio. 



301 




302 




303 




*— * 



I ■ IN" irTT 

i— I * * mmmmmmmmmmm * I : ' ■ J > 



. 



; 3 



ill i 



f,J— . 




:.. 






1 J 




MAIN FLOOR PLAN. 

PRIZE DESIGN FOR PITTSBURG HIGH SCHOOL. 
Rutan & Russell, Architects, Pittsburg, Pa. 



304 




305 



... 


Ml i[p i iriTTin 

* J-- J tilt «ffr^r=iiili m A (BiiiiBisaat A l S f— Timisat <M J * 


j., — ,•*; ; ; >* 




mm 


|i" 1 H 


»• •* 1—1-4 

t— * 1 . 1 


; ._ j j j 


m 


ll p §> 




* & J 


* u ;- 1 


»>■■*' ■■< J ^ * 


It=3 ^ 


-rl r 


si 1 * * 


? i? 11 i:.v.-:.;.; *• ..;. I I 


* — .[ H in* . . *-.- r . ¥ .~a ,, — jg 


' i 

Mg i 




».-; &» * ««'Jh.** # «*■--« 


r— r- 

! i 


1 


S | f| l""'IW HUW( 11 


1 s , 


j 3 fr ' 


i 




°! * 


• ! i 

E ! 


1 1 - "1 


^44 


Ml j S" , 1 


i 




•'-■' : 


i l 


»**;».* a» * *, * * mm iutJ 


...? 


LLf 


ffffl 


4 $ • : ' 

, i ■ . ■ 
1 • . 




: 




1(11,1 ■■■'■ '"" " m "** 


, . m , f'-:' ' ^ ™:,._ . 


. -: ■ .. 1 



THIRD FLOOR PLAN. 

PRIZE DESIGN FOR PITTSBURG HIGH SCHOOL. 
Rutan & Russell, Architects, Pittsburg, Pa. 



306 




307 




308 




309 




310 




311 




312 




305 




Ip 1 




II, 



: * 



; > — £ 




1 MM 




- ■ « » — 4. 




M\*\ 






*pavav'I 1- <■- n 


* , ^ ,i «"; il ». — .-* 


.Jfc...JH-.. j— J. 




- lilt 


•i* * *«•*•»« »-*ji 


f 


■ 



* i * ml 1" "" **S 



THIRD FLOOR PLAN. 

PRIZE DESIGN FOR PITTSBURG HIGH SCHOOL. 
Rutan & Russell, Architects, Pittsburg, Pa. 



306 




307 




308 




309 




310 




311 




312 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER I. 

The Man Who Knows 7 

CHAPTER II. 

Selecting an Architect 15 

CHAPTER III. 

The School Room ; 26 

CHAPTER IV. 

The School Building 34 

CHAPTER V. 

Special Rooms 47 

CHAPTER VI. 

Sanitation \ . . . . 67 

CHAPTER VII. 

Fireproofing and Panic Proofing V.. 79 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Heating of School Buildings \. 89 

CHAPTER IX. 

Ventilation — General Principles \ 95 

CHAPTER X. \ 

Systems of Ventilation \ 101 

CHAPTER XL 

School Laws of States 115 

CHAPTER XII. 

Code of Boston School House Commission 165 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Competition Program 20h 

CHAPTER XIV. 
Canons of Ethics, American Institute of Architects 215 

CHAPTER XV. 
Schedule. of Fees, American Institute of Architects. 217 

APPENDIX. 

Plates of Details of Equipment, Photographic Details, 
Perspectives and Plans of Buildings .221-312 

313 



GENERAL INDEX, 



A 
Abraham Lincoln School, Boston — 

Basement Plan 2 56 

Perspective View 257 

First Floor Plan 258 

Air- 
Composition 96-97 

Direction of 96-97 

Humidity 105, 111 

Quantity Per Pupil . 107 

Velocity 108 

Vitiation 96 

Washing and Filtering 112 

Air Inlets, Size and Location 98, 110 

Air Outlets, Size and Location . 98, 110 

Apparatus Rooms 47 

Arched Windows, Undesirable 29 

Architects, Importance of Skilled 7 

Code of Ethics 215 

How to Select 15 

Schedule of Fees 217 

Architectural Competitions 18-20 

Program for 203 

Assembly Halls, Character of 47 

Astronomical Laboratory 47, 61 

Atmospheric Conditions, Influence Ventilation.. . 104 

Automatic Control, Heating and Ventilating 109 

Automatic Flushing Water Closets 71, 241, 247, 249 

B 

Balance Room 49 

Base Boards and Mouldings 42 

Basements — Use of 36 

Waterproofing 36 

Baths 75, 250 

Battle Creek High School- 
Perspective 299 

314 



INDEX-Continued. 

Sub Basement Plan 300 

Basement Plan 301 

First Floor Plan 302 

Second Floor Plan 303 

Beauty in School Building 34 

Bicycle Room 50 

Biological Laboratory 49 

Biological Laboratory, Table Details 238 

Bishop Cheverus School Building — 

Perspective View 261 

Basement Plan 262 

First Floor Plan 263 

Blackboards, Material and Dimensions 31 

Moulding and Trough Details 240 

Bluefield, W. Va., High School- 
First Floor Plan , 274 

Perspective View , 275 

Second Floor Plan 276 

Board Room 50 

Boiler Room 50 

Boston — Complete School Code 165 

Boston — Equipment Details 222-234 

Botanical Laboratory 4 See Biological 49 

Botanical Laboratory, Equipment 228,238 

Briggs, Warren R., Air Experiments ... 100 

Building — 

Attic 37 

Construction 34 

Corridors 39 

Entrances and Exits 38 

Floors 41 

General Character 34-36 

Number of Stories 37 

Position 35 

Roofs 37 

Site 34 

Stairways 39 

Building Laws of States 115 

Business Department 51 

315 

A 



INDEX- Continued. 

c 

Canons of Ethics, Am. Inst. Architects........... 215 

Ceilings — Height, Finish and Color. 26 

Chalk Trough Details 241 

Cheap Architects 12, 13 

Chemistry Rooms 51 

Chemistry Laboratory, Details 224-226, 235 

Clark School Building, St. Louis — 

Floor Plan 254 

9.KZ 



Perspective View 



D<> 



Class Rooms, Description and Dimensions 28-27,63 

Plan for Forty Pupils . 27 

Plan for Forty-Eight Pupils 27 

Lighting of 26-30 

Clerk's Office 52 

Coal Room 52 

Coat Racks, Detail 239 

Coat Rooms i General Description, 42-52 

Arrangement of 42-45 

Equipment Details 222 

Plans of 44 

Size of 43 

Code of Boston 165 

Code of Ethics .... 215 

Code of Ohio 141 

Commercial Rooms 51, 52 

Competitions, Advantages and Disadvantages 17,18 

Expense of 23 

Program for 203 

Composition of Air 96 

Connecticut School Law 116 

Conservatory 52 

Conveniences in School Rooms 32 

Cooking Rooms 54, 230 

Cooking Room Details 230 

Corridors, General Character 39 

Doors of 38 

Lighting of 39 

Width of 39 

316 



INDEX-Continued, 



D 



Danger in Poorly Designed Buildings 80,84 

Dark Rooms 53 

Demonstration Tables, Details 232,236,237 

Dining Rooms 53 

Direct Heating 89, 90 

Direct-Indirect Heating 93 

Director's Rooms 53 

Domestic Economy Rooms 54 

Domestic Economy 54 

Domestic Art 54 

Doors 32 

Drainage 68 

Drawing Rooms 54 

Drawing Rooms, Details 229 

Dressing Rooms 35, 73, 250 

Drinking Fountains 75, 241-2 

Ducts — Heat and Vent, Size and Location 98-99 



E 



Eight Room Model Fireproof School Building — 

First Floor Plan 284 

Perspective View 285 

Second Floor Plan 286 

Emergency Rooms, See Hospital 63 

Emergency Stairs 85 

Engine Room 55 

Entrances 38-39 

Equipment Details 222-252 

Erasmus Hall High School, New York 294 

Ethics, Code Amer. Inst. Architects 215 

Exhaust Ventilation 106 

Exits 38, 86 

Expert Service, Necessity 7-14 

Extinguishers 84 



317 



INDEX-Continued. 



F 



Fan Room 56 

Fan System, Heating and Ventilating— 

View of Apparatus 252, 253 

Fees of Architects, Schedule 217 

Filtering Air for Ventilation 112 

Fire Extinguishers 84 

Fireproofing, Importance and Cost 79 

Fireproof School Buildings 79-82 

Fire, Protection Against 83 

Five Room School, Model Fireproof. 282 

Floors, Materials and Design — 

Attic 41 

Cove Moulding at Base 41, 42 

Sound Proofing 42 

Toilet Rooms 77 

Foundations 36 

Furnaces, Heating by 90-91 

Furnace Room 56 



G 

Graeme Stewart School, Chicago — 

Basement Plan 264 

Perspective View 265 

First Floor Plan 266 

Gravity System of Heating 91 

Gravity System of Ventilation 102-103 

Goshen, N. Y., High School- 
Basement Plan „ „ 295 

First Floor Plan 296 

Perspective View 297 

Second Floor Plan 298 

Grounds — Location, Size, Drainage, etc 34-35 

Gymnasium 56 

Equipment 192 

Running Track 57 



318 



INDEX- Continued. 



H 



Hand Rails 40, 41 

Hardware 87, 88 

Heating 90 

Direct 89 

Direct-Indirect 93 

Fan System 104, 106 

Hot Air 89 

Indirect ' . . 92 

By Rotation 109 

Heating Coils — View of Apparatus ........ 253 

Heating Devices 90-91 

Heating and Ventilating, Edward Wyman 

School at St. Louis 251 

Height of School Rooms 26 

Hose for Fire Protection 83 

Hospital or Rest Room 63 

Hot Air Furnaces 90-91 

Humidity of Air 105, 111 

I 

Indirect Heating 92 

Inlets, Hot Air — Location and Size 98-99 

J 

Janitor's Room 58 

K 

Kansas School Law 118 

Kindergarten Room 58 

Kitchen 58 

L 

Laboratories 49, 51, 62, 224 

Laboratory Equipment Details 224-238 

Landings 39j 40 

Lane Technical High School, Chicago 277-279 

319 



INDEX-ContinuecL 

.Latrines 71 

Lavatories 74, 249 

Laws of States 115 

Lecture Room, High School; Plan of 223 

Length of School Rooms 26, 27 

Library 59 

Light- 
Direction 28 

Importance 27-28 

Quantity 28 

Lockers 59 

Lunch Rooms 60 

M 

Manual Training Rooms 60 

Manual Training, Details 231 

Maple Flooring 41 

Massachusetts School Law 121 

Mather School, Dorchester, Mass. — 

Perspective View 287 

First Floor Plan 288 

Second Floor Plan 289 

Mechanical Ventilation 104 

Minnesota School Law 124 

Morris High School, New York — 

Perspective View 267 

First Floor Plan 268 

Second Floor 269 

Museum 61 

Music Room 61 

N 

New Hampshire School Law 125 

New Jersey School Law 126 

New York School Law 129 

North Dakota School Law 132 

Number of Pupils per Class Room 26-27 

320 



IXDEX-Continued. 

o 

Observatory 47,61 

Ohio, New State Code 141 

Oil Colors for Walls 31 

Organic Matter in Air 97 

Ornament Undesirable 34 

Outlets, Vent, etc 98 

P 

Painting — Inside Walls 31 

Panic — Proofing 84 

Pennsylvania School Law 133 

Physics Laboratory 62 

Physics Laboratory — Equipment Details 227 

Plan of School Rooms 27 

Plastering — Smooth Finish 42 

Platforms for Teachers 33 

Playgrounds 35 

Play Rooms 62 

Plenum Fan System 106, 107 

Plumbing 69 

Plumbing, Details and Fixtures... 70, 233, 234, 241 to 250 

Principal's Office 63 

Principles of Ventilation 95 

Program of Competitions 203 

Pittsburg High School — 

Main Floor Plan 304 

Front Elevation 305 

Third Floor Plan 306 

Pupils, Number per Class Room 26, 27 

Pupils' Table for Laboratories 227-230, 235, 23S, 241 

R 

Recitation Rooms 63 

Rest Rooms, See Hospitals .... 63 

Risers in Stairs, Fleight 39, 40 

Roofs 37, 82 

321 



IXDEX-Continucd. 

S 

Sanitation .... 57 

School Rooms 26 

Arrangement of Desks 27 

Color Walls 31 

Cubic Feet per Pupil 26 

Dimensions 26-27 

Direction of Light 28 

Lighting 26-27 

Openings for Flues 110 

Walls, Finish and Color 31, 42 

Windows, Size and Design 26 

Window Shades 31 

School Building Codes — 

City of Boston 165 

Ohio Code 141 

Schedule of Fees, Amer. Inst. Architects 217 

School Building Laws of States 115 

Science Lecture Room 64 

Science Lecture Room — Equipment 223, 232, 237 

Sewerage and Drainage 68 

Sewing Rooms 54 

Shops — (Manual Training) . 60 

Shower Baths 250 

Shower Bath Stalls . 250 

Site for School Building 34 

Six Room Model Fireproof School Building 282 

Sixteen Room Model Fireproof School Building — 

Basement Plan 270 

First Floor Plan 272 

Perspective View 271 

Second Floor Plan 273 

Slate for Blackboards and Partitions 31, ?33, 246 

Soldan High School, St. Louis — 

Perspective Views 307, 312 

Basement Plan 308 

First Floor Plan 309 

Second Floor Plan 310 

Third Floor Plan 311 

322 



INDEX- Continued. 

Sound Proofing Floors .... 42 

South Dakota School Law .... 134 

Specialist — Necessity For 11 

Special Rooms 47 

Sprinkler System 83 

St. Marys (R. C.) School, Marion, O 283 

Stage 64 

Stairways — General Design 39-41, 86 

Model Plan For 40 

Rails 85, 87 

Risers and Treads 41 

Width 40 

Lighting of 39 

Stall Partitions for Toilets, etc .283, 246 

Stand Pipes for Fire Hose 83 

State School Laws 115 

Study Rooms .... 64 

Stuyvesant High School, New York 291-293 

Superintendent's Office 64 

T 

Teachers' Rooms 63, 171 

Teachers' Toilets 76, 171 

Teachers' Platforms 33 

Temperature, Automatic Control 109 

Tempering Coils . 106, 107 

Tempering Coils — View of Apparatus 253 

Ten Room Model Fireproof School Building 280-281 

Toilet Rooms, Location and Design 65, 76 

Toilet Room Ventilation 76 

Transoms Objectionable 29 

Treads of Stairs 39, 40 

U 

Urinals 73, 234, 243, 244, 245 

Urinals, Number per male pupil 74 

Utah School Law 134 

Utility Chamber 72, 248 

323 



INDEX-Continued. 

V 

Vacuum Cleaning .- 78 

Vault ..:;... 65 

Velocity of Air in School Rooms 108 

Vent Ducts — Location and Size 110-111 

Ventilation — General Principles 05 

Ventilation — Natural Methods . 102 

Ventilation — Systems of 101 

Gravity System 102-3 

Fan System 104 

Quantity of Ventilation 108 

Automatic Control 109 

Ventilation of Toilets and Closets.. 75,76,247-249 

Vermont School Law 137 

Vestibules 38-39 

Virginia School Law 139 

W 

Wainscoting 42 

Walls, Decoration 30 

Walls, Plastered Smooth 30, 31, 67 

Wardrobes, or Coat Rooms 42-44 

Wardrobe Fittings, Details 222 

Washing Air 112 

Water, Drinking Fountains 75, 241, 242 

Water Closets 71, 247 

Number per Male Pupil 71 

Number per Female Pupil 71 

Ventilated Automatic Closets 247-249 

Water Closet Stalls 70, 75, 233, 246 

Width of School Rooms 26-27 

Winding Steps Objectionable 39 

Windows — Arrangement and Design 2S-30 

Glass Surface Kind of Glass 27 

Height above Floor of Sills 27-28-29 

In Halls 39 

Mullions 28 

Position in School Room 28-30 

Direction of Light 28 

Window Shades 31 

Woodside School, Newark, O. — 

Perspective View 259 

Floor Plans 260 

324 



